Geographical Location

Black Sea is an inland sea located at  intersection of Eastern Europe & Western Asia, bordered by six countries: Turkey, Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine, Russia & Georgia.

Coordinates

The Black Sea spans approximately 40°N to 47°N latitude & 27°E to 41°E longitude.

Total Area

Covers about 436,000 km² (168,000 mi²), making it one of  world's largest enclosed seas.

Maximum Depth

Reaches up to 2,212 meters (7,257 feet) at its deepest point.

Average Depth

Around 1,250 meters (4,100 feet), with large portions of its seabed remaining unexplored.

Water Volume

Estimated at 547,000 cubic kilometers, importantly influencing  regional climate & ecosystems.

Inflowing Rivers

Several major rivers drain into  Black Sea, including:
Danube River (2nd longest river in Europe, flowing through 10 countries)
Dniester River
Dnieper River
Don River
Kuban River
Rioni River (Georgia)

Outflow & Water Connection

The Black Sea connects to other major water bodies through three key straits:
Bosporus Strait → connects  Black Sea to  Sea of Marmara & eventually  Mediterranean Sea via  Dardanelles Strait.
Kerch Strait → connects it to  Sea of Azov.
Dardanelles Strait → indirectly links it to  Aegean Sea &  Mediterranean.

Salinity

The Black Sea has a low salinity of around 17-18 ppt (parts per thousand), importantly lower than  world's oceans (which average 35 ppt). This is due to heavy freshwater inflow from rivers.

Anoxic Layer

The Black Sea is one of  largest anoxic (oxygen-depleted) water bodies in  world.
Its deeper layers (below 150-200 meters) contain high levels of hydrogen sulfide (H₂S), making it unsuitable for most marine life.

Climate

Temperate maritime climate.
Winters: Cold, with snowfall along northern coasts (Ukraine, Russia, Romania).
Summers: Mild to hot, with temperatures reaching 30°C (86°F) in southern regions (Turkey).
Frequent storms in autumn & winter, especially in  western Black Sea.

Major Islands

The Black Sea has few islands, some of  notable ones include:
Snake Island (Ukraine) – Key strategic location.
St. Ivan Island (Bulgaria) – Historically important.
Dzharylhach (Ukraine) – Largest island in  Black Sea.
Berezan Island (Ukraine) – Historically linked to Greek colonization.

Economic Importance

Major trade & shipping hub between Europe, Russia &  Middle East.
Rich offshore oil & natural gas reserves, with key pipelines (e.g., TurkStream).
Important fishing industry, though overfishing & pollution have impacted marine biodiversity.

Strategic & Military Importance

The Black Sea is highly strategic for naval power projection.
Russia's Black Sea Fleet (based in Sevastopol, Crimea) plays a key role in regional dominance.
NATO presence includes naval exercises with Turkey, Romania & Bulgaria.

Historical Conflicts

The Black Sea has been a battleground in numerous wars:
Russo-Turkish Wars (17th-19th century) – Fought over control of  Black Sea.
Crimean War (1853-1856) – A conflict between Russia & an alliance of Britain, France &  Ottoman Empire.
World War I & II – Major naval battles & strategic positioning.
Annexation of Crimea (2014) – Russia took control of Crimea, escalating tensions with Ukraine.

Current Geopolitical Tensions

Russia-Ukraine War (2022-Present) – Black Sea has been a key battleground with naval blockades, drone strikes & shipping disruptions.
Turkey's role – Controls  Bosporus & Dardanelles Straits under  Montreux Convention (1936).
NATO Expansion – Increased military exercises & defense pacts with Black Sea nations.

Marine Biodiversity

Home to over 2,500 marine species, but declining due to pollution & overfishing.
Key species include:

Black Sea anchovy (economically important).
Dolphins & porpoises.
Monk seals (endangered).

Environmental Issues

Pollution from industrial waste, oil spills & untreated sewage.
Overfishing has depleted fish stocks.
Rising water temperatures due to climate change.
Loss of wetlands along coastlines.

Tourism & Cultural Importance

The Black Sea region hosts ancient Greek, Roman, Byzantine & Ottoman ruins.
Major tourism hubs:
Sochi (Russia) – Winter Olympics 2014.
Batumi (Georgia) – A rising Black Sea resort city.
Constanța (Romania) – Historical port city.
Varna (Bulgaria) – Cultural & beach tourism.

Energy & Natural Resources

The Black Sea contains important oil & gas reserves, with offshore exploration by Russia, Romania & Turkey.
TurkStream Pipeline – Delivers Russian natural gas to Europe.
Offshore wind energy potential is being explored.

International Agreements

Montreux Convention (1936) – Governs  control of naval passage through  Bosporus & Dardanelles Straits.
Convention on  Protection of  Black Sea Against Pollution (1992) – Signed by all six bordering nations.
Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC, 1992) – Aims to enhance trade & regional development.

Conflict Name

Russia-Ukraine War (also called  Russo-Ukrainian War, 2022-Present)

Start Date

February 24, 2022

Current Status

Ongoing; active combat in eastern & southern Ukraine, intermittent peace talks & international involvement.

Key Belligerents

Ukraine (Supported by NATO, EU & allies)
Russia (Supported by Belarus, Iran, North Korea & indirect support from China)

Root Causes

Ukraine’s NATO & EU aspirations seen as a threat by Russia.
Annexation of Crimea (2014) by Russia.
Pro-Russian separatist movements in Donbas (since 2014).
Russia’s claim of protecting ethnic Russians in Ukraine.
Geopolitical struggle between Russia &  West (NATO & EU).

Major War Phases

Pre-War (2014-2022): Annexation of Crimea, conflict in Donbas, Minsk agreements.
Initial Invasion (Feb-March 2022): Russia launched a full-scale invasion targeting Kyiv, Kharkiv, Mariupol & other key cities.
Ukrainian Counteroffensives (Mid-2022): Ukraine recaptured territory in Kherson & Kharkiv.
War of Attrition (2023-Present): Ongoing battles in Bakhmut, Avdiivka & southern Ukraine, heavy artillery warfare.

Major Theaters of War

Kyiv Region: Russia attempted to seize  Ukrainian capital but failed.
Donbas (Eastern Ukraine): Intense fighting in Bakhmut, Sievierodonetsk & Avdiivka.
Southern Ukraine: Battles for Mariupol, Kherson & Zaporizhzhia.
Crimea: Ukraine has targeted Russian military bases.
Black Sea: Naval warfare, drone strikes & grain shipment disputes.

Key Military Events

Battle of Kyiv (Feb-Apr 2022): Russian forces failed to capture  capital.
Siege of Mariupol (Feb-May 2022): City fell after brutal Russian assault.
Kherson Counteroffensive (Aug-Nov 2022): Ukraine liberated  city.
Bakhmut Battle (2022-2023): Longest & bloodiest battle of  war.
Crimea Bridge Attack (Oct 2022 & July 2023): Ukraine struck Russian supply routes.

Casualties (Estimates as of 2024)

Russian Forces: 150,000-200,000 killed/wounded (Western estimates).
Ukrainian Forces: 70,000-100,000 killed/wounded.
Civilian Deaths: Over 30,000 confirmed (actual number likely higher).
Displaced People: Over 10 million Ukrainians displaced (5 million refugees abroad).

Weapons Used

Russia: Artillery, drones (Shahed-136 from Iran), ballistic missiles, tanks (T-90), hypersonic missiles (Kinzhal).
Ukraine: Western-supplied weapons (HIMARS, Leopard 2 tanks, Storm Shadow missiles, Patriot air defense).
Drones: Both sides using drones extensively for reconnaissance & strikes.

International Support for Ukraine

NATO/EU: Military aid, intelligence, economic sanctions on Russia.
U.S.: Over $100 billion in military/economic aid.
UK, Germany, France: Tanks, air defense systems, artillery.
Turkey: Supplied Bayraktar TB2 drones.

Support for Russia

Belarus: Allowed Russian troops to use its territory.
Iran: Provided drones (Shahed-136, Mohajer-6).
North Korea: Allegedly supplied artillery shells & missiles.
China: Indirect economic support but no confirmed lethal aid.

Economic Impact

Ukraine: Economy shrank by over 30% in 2022, infrastructure damage exceeds $500 billion.
Russia: Severe Western sanctions, loss of European energy markets, weakened ruble.
Global: Disruptions in grain, oil & gas markets, inflation spikes.

Key Political & Diplomatic Efforts

UN Efforts: Multiple resolutions condemning Russia, failed ceasefire talks.
Turkey & Black Sea Grain Deal: Allowed Ukraine to export grain via Black Sea, but collapsed in 2023.
China’s Peace Plan (Feb 2023): Proposed a 12-point plan, largely dismissed by Ukraine &  West.
Peace Talks (Saudi Arabia 2024): Ongoing U.S.-Russia-Ukraine discussions.

Russian Strategic Goals

Overthrow Ukrainian government (failed).
Capture Donetsk & Luhansk (ongoing).
Secure land corridor to Crimea (partially successful).
Counter NATO influence in Eastern Europe.

Ukrainian Strategic Goals

Expel Russian forces from all occupied territories.
Secure more military aid from  West.
Maintain territorial integrity, including Crimea.

NATO & EU Response

Military Aid: Arms supplies, intelligence sharing, training Ukrainian troops.
Economic Sanctions: Freezing Russian assets, banning exports, limiting Russian oil/gas sales.
NATO Expansion: Finland joined in 2023, Sweden expected to join soon.

Future Scenarios (Predictions)

Stalemate: War continues for years with no decisive victory.
Russian Gains: If Ukraine runs out of Western support, Russia may advance.
Ukrainian Victory: Unlikely without major Western intervention.
Peace Negotiations: Possible if both sides reach military exhaustion.

Impact on Global Order

New Cold War: U.S.-Russia tensions at an all-time high.
China-Russia Ties Strengthened: Closer economic/military cooperation.
NATO Strengthened: Increased military presence in Eastern Europe.
Geopolitical Realignment: Energy, trade & military alliances shifting worldwide.

PRACTICE QUESTION

Q. Analyze implications of Russia-Ukraine war on Black Sea maritime trade, global supply chains & energy security with a focus on India's interests.