PREHISTORIC INDIA TO MAURYAN AGE

1. Consider the following archaeological sites along with their respective states and descriptions: (UPSC CSE Pre. 2024)

Archaeological Site	State	Description
1. Chandraketugarh	Odisha	Trading port town
2. Inamgaon	Maharashtra	Chalcolithic site
3. Mangadu	Kerala	Megalithic site
4. Salihundam	Andhra Pradesh	Rock-cut cave shrines

Which of the above rows are correctly matched?

(a) 1 and 2
 (b) 2 and 3
 (c) 3 and 4
 (d) 1 and 4

Explanation: (b) 2 and 3.

1. Chandraketugarh is located in the Ganges Delta in West Bengal, not Odisha. It is an important archaeological and trading site that dates back to the Maurya and Gupta periods. Hence, Row 1 is incorrect.
   
   
2. Inamgaon, situated in Maharashtra, is a well-known Chalcolithic settlement from 3300–1300 BCE. It was a significant habitation site of the Late Jorwe culture. Hence, Row 2 is correctly matched.
   
   
3. Mangadu, located in Kerala, is a recently discovered Megalithic site. The Mangadu megaliths date from 1000 BCE to 100 BCE and provide important insights into ancient burial practices. Hence, Row 3 is correctly matched.
   
   
4. Salihundam, situated in Andhra Pradesh, is an important Buddhist site, containing stupas, chaityas, viharas, and mandapas. However, it does not have rock-cut cave shrines. Hence, Row 4 is incorrect.

2. Which one of the following statements about Sangam literature in ancient South India is correct? (UPSC CSE Pre. 2022)

(a) Sangam poems are devoid of any reference to material culture.
(b) The social classification of Varna was known to Sangam poets.
(c) Sangam poems have no reference to warrior ethic.
(d) Sangam literature refers to magical forces as irrational.

Solution: (b)

Explanation:

Sangam literature comprises the earliest Tamil writings, believed to have been composed between the 1st and 4th centuries CE in three literary academies (Sangams) in Madurai. The poets of this period were aware of the concept of Varna, mentioning social groups such as:

• Arashar (kings)
• Vaishiyar (traders)
• Velalar (farmers)
• Brahmanas, some of whom were patronized by ruling elites
  However, the fourfold Varna system had minimal relevance in Tamil society, and the Jati system was absent.

Important Points:

• Material Culture in Sangam Literature: References to farming (including rice and barley cultivation), cattle rearing, fishing, and iron tools (e.g., iron-tipped arrows in Kuruntokai 16) are found.
• Warrior Ethic in Sangam Literature: Puram poems in Sangam literature focus on war, heroism, and the celebration of warriors' feats, even glorifying their deaths in battle.
• Belief in Magical Forces: Sangam literature reflects the concept of Ananku, a sacred force believed to reside in various objects. Groups such as Pariyans, Tutiyans, Panas, and Velans conducted rituals to control these forces through singing, dancing, and trance-like ceremonies.

3. Who among the following rulers advised his subjects through this inscription? (UPSC CSE Pre. 2020)

"Whosoever praises his religious sect or blames other sects out of excessive devotion to his own sect, with the view of glorifying his own sect, he rather injures his own sect very severely."

(a) Ashoka
(b) Samudragupta
(c) Harshavardhana
(d) Krishna Deva Raya

Solution: (a)

Explanation:

This statement is from Ashoka’s 12th Rock Edict, where he advocates religious tolerance and discourages sectarian conflicts. Ashoka, a Mauryan emperor, promoted Dhamma (moral law) and urged his subjects to respect all religions.

4. Which one of the following is NOT a Harappan site? (UPSC CSE Pre. 2019)

(a) Chanhudaro
(b) Kot Diji
(c) Sohgaura
(d) Desalpur

Solution: (c)

Explanation:

Sohgaura is not a Harappan site. It is a village in Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh, known for the Sohgaura Copper Plate, a Mauryan-era inscription mentioning famine relief efforts.

Important Points:

• Chanhudaro (Sindh, Pakistan): A major Harappan site south of Mohenjo-daro, known for carnelian bead production.
• Kot Diji (Pakistan): A pre-Harappan settlement that later became part of the Indus Valley Civilization (3300 BCE).
• Desalpur (Kutch, India): A small Indus Valley settlement with stone and rubble walls, possibly a port city.

5. With reference to the difference between the culture of Rigvedic Aryans and Indus Valley people, which of the following statements is/are correct? (UPSC CSE Pre. 2017)

1. Rigvedic Aryans used coats of mail and helmets in warfare, whereas the people of the Indus Valley Civilization did not leave any evidence of using them.
2. Rigvedic Aryans knew gold, silver, and copper, whereas Indus Valley people knew only copper and iron.
3. Rigvedic Aryans had domesticated the horse, whereas there is no evidence of Indus Valley people being aware of this animal.

Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2, and 3

Solution: (c)

Explanation:

• Statement 1 is correct: Rigvedic Aryans used Varma (coats of mail) and Sironastra (helmets), along with weapons like Asi (swords), Hanas (arrows), and Ilhianus (bows). No such evidence exists for the Indus Valley Civilization.
• Statement 2 is incorrect: Harappans used gold, silver, copper, and bronze, but they were unfamiliar with iron.
• Statement 3 is correct: Rigvedic texts contain prayers for horses, and horses were used in chariot warfare. However, there is no conclusive evidence of horses in the Indus Valley Civilization.

6. With reference to religious practices in the Indus Valley Civilization, consider the following statements:

1. The people of the Indus Valley Civilization built large temples dedicated to deities.
2. A seal depicting a male figure in a yogic posture surrounded by animals has been found, which some scholars associate with a proto-Shiva figure.
3. There is conclusive evidence that the Harappans domesticated and used horses.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2, and 3

Solution: (b)

Explanation:

• Statement 1 is incorrect: No large temple structures have been discovered in Harappan sites. The Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro may have had ritual significance, but it is not a temple.
• Statement 2 is correct: A seal depicting a male figure in a yogic posture with animals around him has been found. Some scholars link it to proto-Shiva (Pashupati).
• Statement 3 is incorrect: There is no evidence of domesticated horses in the Indus Valley Civilization.

7. Regarding the Indus Valley Civilization, consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE Pre. 2016)

1. It was predominantly a secular civilization, and the religious element, though present, did not dominate the scene.
2. During this period, cotton was used for manufacturing textiles in India.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

 (a) 1 only
 (b) 2 only
 (c) Both 1 and 2
 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

Solution (c)
 Explanation: Option (c) is correct. Farmers of the Indus Valley Civilization were the first to cultivate and weave cotton textiles. This highlights their advanced knowledge of agriculture and craftsmanship. Additionally, the Indus Valley Civilization was predominantly secular in nature, with religious elements present but not dominating societal or administrative structures.

8. The concepts of "Dharma" and "Rita" depict a central idea of ancient Vedic civilization in India. In this context, consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE Pre. 2014)

1. Dharma was a conception of obligations and the discharge of one's duties to oneself and others.
2. Rita was the fundamental moral law governing the functioning of the universe and all it contained.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

 (a) 1 only
 (b) 2 only
 (c) Both 1 and 2
 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 

Solution (c)
 Explanation: Option (c) is correct.

• Statement 1 is correct: In Hinduism, Dharma is one of the four components of Purushartha (the aims of life). It signifies behaviors that align with Rita, the cosmic order that sustains the universe. Dharma encompasses duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues, and the "right way of living."
  
  
• Statement 2 is correct: Rita refers to the natural and moral order governing the universe. It is the principle that maintains balance in nature, the order of sacrifices, and the ethical laws of the world.

POST MAURYAN TO POST GUPTA 

1. In which one of the following regions was Dhanyakataka, which flourished as a prominent Buddhist centre under the Mahasanghikas, located? (UPSC CSE Pre 2023)
(a) Andhra
(b) Gandhara
(c) Kalinga
(d) Magadha

Solution: (a)
Explanation: Dharanikota is a town near Amaravati in the Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh, India. It is the site of the ancient Dhanyakataka, which was the capital of the Satavahana kingdom, also known as Andhras, which ruled in the Deccan around the 1st to 3rd centuries A.D.

2. With reference to ancient South India, Kotkai, Poompuhar, and Muchiri were well known as: (UPSC CSE Pre 2023)
(a) Capital cities
(b) Ports
(c) Centres of iron-and-steel making
(d) Shrines of Jain Tirthankaras

Solution: (b)
Explanation: Korkai, Poompuhar (also known as Kaveripattinam), and Muchiri are ancient port cities in the southern region of present-day Tamil Nadu, India. These cities were significant for maritime trade and commerce.

3. Which one of the following explains the practice of "Vattakirutal" as mentioned in Sangam poems? (UPSC CSE Pre 2023)
(a) Kings employing women bodyguards
(b) Learned persons assembling in royal courts to discuss religious and philosophical matters
(c) Young girls keeping watch over agricultural fields and driving away birds and animals
(d) A king defeated in a battle committing ritual suicide by starving himself to death

Solution: (d)
Explanation: Vattakirutal was a Tamil ritual of fasting till death, particularly during the Sangam age. Tamil kings, in order to save their honor and prestige, would face North ('Vatakkiruttal') and never turn their back in battle.

4. From the decline of Guptas until the rise of Harshavardhana in the early seventh century, which of the following kingdoms were holding power in Northern India? (UPSC CSE Pre 2021)

1. The Guptas of Magadha
2. The Paramaras of Malwa
3. The Pushyabhutis of Thanesar
4. The Maukharis of Kanauj
5. The Yadavas of Devagiri
6. The Maitrakas of Valabhi
   Select the correct answer using the code given below:
   (a) 1, 2 and 5
   (b) 1, 3, 4 and 6
   (c) 2, 3 and 4
   (d) 5 and 6

Solution: (b)
Explanation: The prominent ruling dynasties during this period included the Pushyabhutis of Thanesar, the Maukharies of Kannauj, and the Maitrakas of Vallabhi. The Yadavas ruled the Deccan later (12th-14th centuries), and the Paramaras ruled Malwa (9th-14th centuries).

5. Consider the following events in the history of India: (UPSC CSE Pre 2020)

1. Rise of Pratiharas under King Bhoja
2. Establishment of Pallava power under Mahendravarman-I
3. Establishment of Chola power by Parantaka-I
4. Pala dynasty founded by Gopala
   What is the correct chronological order?
   (a) 2 - 1 - 4 - 3
   (b) 3 - 1 - 4 - 2
   (c) 2 - 4 - 1 - 3
   (d) 3 - 4 - 1 - 2

Solution: (c)
Explanation:

• 600-630 CE: Establishment of Pallava Power under Mahendravarman-I
• 750-770 CE: Foundation of Pala Dynasty in Bihar and Bengal
• 836-885 CE: Rise of Pratiharas under King Mihir Bhoja
• 907-955 CE: Establishment of Chola Power under Parantaka-I

6. With reference to the history of India, consider the following pairs: (UPSC CSE Pre 2020)

1. Bhilsa - Madhya Pradesh
2. Dwarasamudra - Maharashtra
3. Girinagar - Gujarat
4. Sthanesvara - Uttar Pradesh
   Which of the pairs given above are correctly matched?
   (a) 1 and 3 only
   (b) 1 and 4 only
   (c) 2 and 3 only
   (d) 2 and 4 only

Solution: (a)
Explanation:

• Bhilsa (Vidisha) is in Madhya Pradesh (Correct)
• Dwarasamudra is in Karnataka (Incorrect)
• Girinagar is in Gujarat (Correct)
• Sthanesvara is in Haryana (Incorrect)

 7. With reference to the period of the Gupta dynasty in ancient India, the towns Ghantasafa, Kadura, and Chaui were known as:
[UPSC CSE Prelims 2020]
(a) Ports handling foreign trade
 (b) Capitals of powerful kingdoms
 (c) Places of exquisite stone art and architecture
 (d) Important Buddhist pilgrimage centres

Answer: (a) Ports handling foreign trade

Explanation:
 During the Gupta period, external and internal trade flourished.

• In the Southern region, the ports included Kadura and Ghantasala, along with Kaveripattanam (Puhar) and Thondi in the Pandya region.
• Other significant ports during this period:
  • Western India: Kalyan, Chaul, Broach, and Cambay
  • Eastern India: Tamralipti (Bengal) – conducted trade with China, Lanka, Java, and Sumatra 

 8. In the history of India, the terms 'Kulyavapa' and 'Dronavapa' denote:
[UPSC CSE Prelims 2020]
(a) Measurement of land
 (b) Coins of different monetary value
 (c) Classification of urban land
 (d) Religious rituals

Answer: (a) Measurement of land

Explanation:

• These terms refer to land measurement units used during the Gupta period, mainly mentioned in copper plate inscriptions found in Bengal.
• Approximate conversions:
  • Kulyavapa = ~160 bighas
  • Dronavapa = 16-20 bighas
  • Adhavapa = 4-5 bighas

 9. With reference to forced labour (Vishti) in India during the Gupta period, which one of the following statements is correct?
[UPSC CSE Prelims 2019]
(a) It was considered a source of income for the State, a sort of tax paid by the people.
 (b) It was totally absent in the Madhya Pradesh and Kathiawar regions of the Gupta Empire.
 (c) The forced labourer was entitled to weekly wages.
 (d) The eldest son of the labourer was sent as the forced labourer.

Answer: (a) It was considered a source of income for the State.

Explanation:

• During the Gupta period, Vishti (forced labour) became a source of state revenue and was seen as a form of taxation.
• Gupta inscriptions frequently mention Vishti along with other taxes.
• The donees not only received land and villages but also had the right to collect forced labour.
• The prevalence of Vishti is mostly observed in inscriptions from Madhya Pradesh and Kathiawar regions.

 10. Which one of the following was a very important seaport in the Kakatiya kingdom?
[UPSC CSE Prelims 2017]
(a) Kakinada
 (b) Motupalli
 (c) Machilipatnam
 (d) Nellore

Answer: (b) Motupalli

Explanation:

• Motupalli was a significant international port during the Kakatiya period, located in Krishna district, Andhra Pradesh.
• It played a crucial role in maritime trade, with records showing its importance in the 15th-century Vijayanagara period.

 11.In the context of the history of India, consider the following pairs:
[UPSC CSE Prelims 2016]

Term	Meaning
1. Eripatti -	Land revenue set aside for village tank maintenance
2. Taniyurs-	Villages donated to a single Brahmin or a group of Brahmins
3. Ghatikas-	Colleges generally attached to temples

Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
 (a) 1 and 2
 (b) 3 only
 (c) 2 and 3
 (d) 1 and 3

Answer: (d) 1 and 3

Explanation:

• Pair 1 (Eripatti - Correct): Land revenue from Eripatti was allocated for maintaining village tanks during the Pallava period.
• Pair 2 (Taniyurs - Incorrect): Instead of being donated to Brahmins, Taniyur was a large village that functioned as an administrative unit in Chola administration.
• Pair 3 (Ghatikas - Correct): Ghatikas were educational institutions often attached to temples in South India. 

12. The Chinese traveller Yuan Chwang (Hiuen Tsang), who visited India, recorded the general conditions and culture of India at that time. In this context, which of the following statements is/are correct?
[UPSC CSE Prelims 2014]

1. The roads and river routes were completely immune from robbery.
2. As regards punishment for offences, ordeals by fire, water, and poison were used to determine guilt or innocence.
3. Tradesmen had to pay duties at ferries and barrier stations.

Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
 (a) 1 only
 (b) 2 and 3 only
 (c) 1 and 3 only
 (d) 1, 2, and 3

Answer: (b) 2 and 3 only

Explanation:

• Statement 1 (Incorrect): Yuan Chwang recorded that robbery was prevalent. He himself was once robbed and nearly sacrificed before being saved by a storm.
• Statement 2 (Correct): Traditional ordeals like fire, water, and poison were used in India to determine a person's innocence or guilt.
• Statement 3 (Correct): Traders were taxed at ferries and border checkpoints during their travel.

EARLY MEDIEVAL AND DELHI SULTANATE

1. Consider the following dynasties:

1. Hoysala
2. Gahadavala
3. Kakatiya
4. Yadava

How many of the above dynasties established their kingdoms in the early eighth century AD?
 [UPSC CSE Prelims 2023]
 (a) Only one
 (b) Only two
 (c) Only three
 (d) None

Answer: (d) None

Explanation:

• Hoysala Dynasty: Originated in Karnataka and ruled from the 10th to 14th centuries.
• Gahadavala Dynasty: Ruled parts of present-day Uttar Pradesh between the 11th and 13th centuries.
• Kakatiya Dynasty: Dominated the eastern Deccan region from the 12th to 14th centuries.
• Yadava Dynasty: Declared independence in the mid-12th century after the decline of the Chalukyas.

None of these dynasties were established in the early eighth century AD.

 2. With reference to Indian history, consider the following statements:

1. The first Mongol invasion of India happened during the reign of Jalal-ud-din Khalji.
2. During the reign of Ala-ud-din Khalji, one Mongol assault marched up to Delhi and besieged the city.
3. Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq temporarily lost portions of the northwest of his kingdom to the Mongols.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
 [UPSC CSE Prelims 2022]
 (a) 1 and 2
 (b) 2 only
 (c) 1 and 3
 (d) 3 only

Answer: (b) 2 only

Explanation:

• Statement 1 (Incorrect): The first Mongol invasion occurred during the reign of Iltutmish (1211–1236), not Jalal-ud-din Khalji.
• Statement 2 (Correct): During Ala-ud-din Khalji’s reign, Mongols under Targhi besieged Delhi in 1299 while Ala-ud-din was laying siege to Chittor.
• Statement 3 (Incorrect): Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq faced Mongol attacks but never lost significant territory to them. Instead, he paid a large ransom to prevent further invasions.

 3. With reference to Indian history, who were known as "Kulah-Daran"?
[UPSC CSE Prelims 2022]
(a) Arab merchants
 (b) Qalandars
 (c) Persian calligraphists
 (d) Sayyids

Answer: (d) Sayyids

Explanation:

• The Sayyids were known as Kulah-Daran because they wore pointed caps (Kulah), a sign of their noble and religious status.

 4. Consider the following pairs:
[UPSC CSE Prelims 2022]

Ruler	Dynasty
1. Nanuka	Chandela
2. Jayashakti	Parmara
3. Nagabhata II	Gurjara-Pratihara
4. Bhoja	Rashtrakuta

How many pairs given above are correctly matched?
 (a) Only one pair
 (b) Only two pairs
 (c) Only three pairs
 (d) All four pairs

Answer: (b) Only two pairs

Explanation:

• Pair 1 (Correct): Nanuka founded the Chandela dynasty in the early 9th century CE.
• Pair 2 (Incorrect): Jayashakti was a Chandela ruler, not from the Parmara dynasty.
• Pair 3 (Correct): Nagabhata II belonged to the Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty.
• Pair 4 (Incorrect): Bhoja was a ruler of the Parmara dynasty, not the Rashtrakutas.

 5. Consider the following statements:

1. It was during the reign of Iltutmish that Chengiz Khan reached the Indus in pursuit of the fugitive Khwarezm prince.
2. It was during the reign of Muhammad-bin-Tughluq that Taimur occupied Multan and crossed the Indus.
3. It was during the reign of Deva Raya II of Vijayanagara Empire that Vasco da Gama reached the coast of Kerala.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
 [UPSC CSE Prelims 2021]
 (a) 1 only
 (b) 1 and 2
 (c) 3 only
 (d) 2 and 3

Answer: (a) 1 only

Explanation:

• Statement 1 (Correct): Chengiz Khan reached the Indus during Iltutmish’s reign (1211-1236) but Iltutmish diplomatically avoided conflict.
• Statement 2 (Incorrect): Taimur (Timur) invaded India during the reign of Nasir-ud-din Mahmud Shah Tughlaq (1394-1413), not Muhammad-bin-Tughluq.
• Statement 3 (Incorrect): Vasco da Gama arrived in India in 1498, long after the reign of Deva Raya II (1422–1446).

6. Which of the following phrases defines the nature of 'Hundi' generally referred to in the sources of the post-Harsha period?
[UPSC CSE Prelims 2020]
(a) An advisory issued by the king to his subordinates.
 (b) A diary to be maintained for daily accounts.
 (c) A bill of exchange.
 (d) An order from the feudal lord to his subordinates.

Answer: (c) A bill of exchange.

Explanation:

• Hundi was a financial instrument used in medieval India for trade and credit transactions.
• It functioned as a letter of credit payable after a certain period.
• Hundis often included insurance charges, varying based on transport mode (land, river, sea), value of goods, and destination.

 7. Consider the following statements regarding the administrative system of the Delhi Sultanate:
[UPSC CSE Prelims 2019]

1. In the revenue administration, the officer responsible for tax collection was known as the ‘Amil’.
2. The Iqta system, followed by the Delhi Sultans, was an ancient indigenous institution.
3. The position of Mir Bakshi was introduced during the rule of the Khalji Sultans of Delhi.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
 (a) 1 only
 (b) 1 and 2 only
 (c) 3 only
 (d) 1, 2, and 3

Answer: (a) 1 only

Explanation:

• Statement 1 (Correct): The Amil was responsible for revenue collection in the Delhi Sultanate. He ensured tax collection and oversaw the administration of the assigned area.
• Statement 2 (Incorrect): The Iqta system was not an ancient Indian institution. It was introduced in India by the Delhi Sultans, inspired by a similar system in Persia. Under this system, land was divided into Iqta (administrative units) and assigned to nobles, soldiers, and officers for revenue collection and military upkeep.
• Statement 3 (Incorrect): The office of Mir Bakshi (head of the military department) was established during the Mughal period, not during the rule of the Khalji Sultans.

8. Which one of the following foreign travelers extensively described the diamond mines and trade in India?
[UPSC CSE Prelims 2018]
(a) Francois Bernier
 (b) Jean-Baptiste Tavernier
 (c) Jean de Thevenot
 (d) Abbe Barthelemy Carre

Answer: (b) Jean-Baptiste Tavernier

Explanation:

• Jean-Baptiste Tavernier was a French jeweler and traveler who visited India six times during the 17th century.
• He was deeply interested in the diamond trade and extensively documented the diamond mines in the Deccan, including the Golconda mines.
• He is best known for acquiring the famous Tavernier Blue diamond in 1666.

9. In Medieval India, the terms 'Mahattara' and 'Pattakila' were used to refer to:
[UPSC CSE Prelims 2014]
(a) Military officers
 (b) Village headmen
 (c) Specialists in Vedic rituals
 (d) Chiefs of craft guilds

Answer: (b) Village headmen

Explanation:

• Mahattara was a title used for representatives of towns or villages during medieval Indian administration, especially under the Silahara dynasty (765–1215 AD).
• Pattakila was another term referring to a village headman, responsible for local administration and revenue collection.

10. Who among the following is credited with establishing the Rashtrakuta Empire?
[UPSC CSE Prelims 2014]
(a) Amoghavarsha I
 (b) Danti Durga
 (c) Dhruva
 (d) Krishna I

Answer: (b) Danti Durga

Explanation:

• Danti Durga (Dantivarman II) was the founder of the Rashtrakuta dynasty and ruled from 735 to 756 CE.
• He defeated the Chalukyas and took titles like Rajadhiraja and Parameshvara.
• His capital was in the Gulbarga region of Karnataka, and he expanded his empire by conquering regions in Madhya Pradesh and Southern Gujarat.

MUGHAL AND REGIONAL STATES

1. Which of the following rulers of medieval India granted permission to the Portuguese to build a fort at Bhatkal? [UPSC CSE Prelims 2024]

(a) Krishnadevaraya
 (b) Narasimha Saluva
 (c) Muhammad Shah III
 (d) Yusuf Adil Shah

Explanation: a

• Krishnadevaraya (1509–1529) was one of the greatest rulers of the Vijayanagara Empire and belonged to the Tuluva dynasty.
• He maintained friendly relations with the Portuguese, as their trade provided him with warhorses, firearms, and luxury goods.
• In 1510, Afonso de Albuquerque, the Portuguese governor, requested permission to build a fort at Bhatkal, a strategic port town on the west coast of India.
• Krishnadevaraya granted this request, strengthening his ties with the Portuguese and securing access to better cavalry.

2. Who among the following rulers of the Vijayanagara Empire constructed a large dam across the Tungabhadra River and a canal-cum-aqueduct several kilometers long to the capital city?
[UPSC CSE Prelims 2023]
(a) Devaraya I
 (b) Mallikarjuna
 (c) Vira Vijaya
 (d) Virupaksha

Answer: (a) Devaraya I

Explanation:

• Devaraya I, who ruled in the 15th century, played a crucial role in urban infrastructure development.
• Around 1410 CE, he constructed a barrage on the Tungabhadra River and built a 24 km-long aqueduct to ensure a reliable water supply to the capital.

3. Who among the following rulers of medieval Gujarat surrendered Diu to the Portuguese?
[UPSC CSE Prelims 2023]
(a) Ahmad Shah
 (b) Mahmud Begarha
 (c) Bahadur Shah
 (d) Muhammad Shah

Answer: (c) Bahadur Shah

Explanation:

• In 1534, Bahadur Shah of Gujarat signed the Treaty of Bassein with the Portuguese, ceding Diu and other territories such as Vasai and the islands that now form Mumbai.
• Later in 1559, the Portuguese acquired Daman as well.

 4. The Sanskrit text "Yogavasistha" was translated into Persian by Nizamuddin Panipati during the reign of:
[UPSC CSE Prelims 2022]
(a) Akbar
 (b) Humayun
 (c) Shah Jahan
 (d) Aurangzeb

Answer: (a) Akbar

Explanation:

• "Yogavasistha", a Vedantic philosophical treatise, was translated into Persian by Nizamuddin Panipati under Akbar’s rule.
• Akbar established a translation bureau (Maktab Khana) in 1574-75 at Fatehpur Sikri, translating Sanskrit, Arabic, and Turkish texts into Persian.

 5. According to Portuguese traveler Nuniz, women in the Vijayanagara Empire were skilled in which of the following areas?
[UPSC CSE Prelims 2021]

1. Wrestling
2. Astrology
3. Accounting
4. Soothsaying

Select the correct answer using the code given below:
 (a) 1, 2, and 3 only
 (b) 1, 3, and 4 only
 (c) 2 and 4 only
 (d) 1, 2, 3, and 4

Answer: (d) 1, 2, 3, and 4

Explanation:

• According to Fernão Nuniz, women in Vijayanagara society were highly trained in various fields, including wrestling, astrology, accounting, and soothsaying.
• Some were even judges, security personnel, and musicians in the royal court.

 6. With reference to Medieval India, arrange the following administrative units in ascending order of size:
[UPSC CSE Prelims 2021]
(a) Pargana - Sarkar - Suba
 (b) Sarkar - Pargana - Suba
 (c) Suba - Sarkar - Pargana
 (d) Pargana - Suba - Sarkar

Answer: (a) Pargana - Sarkar - Suba

Explanation:

• Pargana (smallest unit): A cluster of villages.
• Sarkar: A group of Parganas, managed by a Shiqdar (military officer) and an Amin (civilian judge).
• Suba (largest unit): A province consisting of multiple Sarkars, ruled by a Subedar.

 7. With reference to Mughal India, what is/are the difference(s) between Jagirdar and Zamindar?
[UPSC CSE Prelims 2019]

1. Jagirdars were holders of land assignments in lieu of judicial and police duties, whereas Zamindars were holders of revenue rights without obligation to perform any duty other than revenue collection.
2. Land assignments to Jagirdars were hereditary, while revenue rights of Zamindars were not hereditary.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:
 (a) 1 only
 (b) 2 only
 (c) Both 1 and 2
 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

Answer: (d) Neither 1 nor 2

Explanation:

• Zamindars were hereditary owners of their lands and enjoyed privileges accordingly. They helped in revenue collection and local administration and maintained their own soldiers.
• The Jagirdari system was introduced during the Delhi Sultanate and continued under the Mughals. Jagirdars collected taxes but were not hereditary landowners.

 8. Who among the following Mughal Emperors shifted emphasis from illustrated manuscripts to albums and individual portraits?
[UPSC CSE Prelims 2019]
(a) Humayun
 (b) Akbar
 (c) Jahangir
 (d) Shah Jahan

Answer: (c) Jahangir

Explanation:

• Akbar focused on illustrated manuscripts, but it was Jahangir who shifted the focus to albums and individual portraits.
• Jahangir particularly encouraged paintings depicting events of his life, individual portraits, and studies of birds, flowers, and animals.

9. Regarding the taxation system of Krishna Deva Raya of Vijayanagar, consider the following statements:
[UPSC CSE Prelims 2016]

1. The tax rate on land was fixed depending on the quality of the land.
2. Private workshop owners paid an industry tax.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
 (a) 1 only
 (b) 2 only
 (c) Both 1 and 2
 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

Answer: (c) Both 1 and 2

Explanation:

• In Vijayanagar, land tax rates varied depending on land quality and fertility.
• Besides land revenue, other sources of income included custom duties, tributes from vassals, and professional taxes (including an industry tax).

 10.Banjaras during the medieval period of Indian history were generally:
[UPSC CSE Prelims 2016]
(a) Agriculturists
 (b) Warriors
 (c) Weavers
 (d) Traders

Answer: (d) Traders

Explanation:

• Banjaras were traders who moved in caravans, transporting bulk goods such as food grains, pulses, ghee, and salt over long distances.
• They played a crucial role in supplying military and urban populations.

 11. With reference to the economic history of medieval India, the term 'Araghatta' refers to:
[UPSC CSE Prelims 2016]
(a) Bonded labour
 (b) Land grants made to military officers
 (c) Waterwheel used for irrigation
 (d) Waste land converted to cultivated land

Answer: (c) Waterwheel used for irrigation

Explanation:

• Araghatta was a Persian wheel, a mechanical water-lifting device operated by bullocks, buffaloes, or camels.
• It was widely used for drawing water from wells for irrigation.

 12. Consider the following pairs:
[UPSC CSE Prelims 2015]

Region	Modern Location
Champaka	Central India
Durgara	Jammu
Kuluta	Malabar

Which of the above pairs is/are correctly matched?
 (a) 1 and 2 only
 (b) 2 only
 (c) 1 and 3 only
 (d) 3 only

Answer: (b) 2 only

Explanation:

• Champaka corresponds to Chamba (Himachal Pradesh), not Central India.
• Durgara is correctly identified with Jammu.
• Kuluta refers to Kullu (Himachal Pradesh), not Malabar.

 13. Who among the following founded a new city on the south bank of a tributary to the Krishna River and undertook to rule his kingdom as the agent of a deity to whom all the land south of the Krishna was supposed to belong?
[UPSC CSE Prelims 2015]
(a) Amoghavarsha I
 (b) Ballala II
 (c) Harihara I
 (d) Prataparudra II

Answer: (c) Harihara I

Explanation:

• Vijayanagar was founded in 1336 by Harihara I and Bukka I of the Sangama dynasty.
• They initially served under the Kakatiya rulers of Warangal before declaring independence.
• They established Vijayanagar on the south bank of the Tungabhadra River.

 14. The arrival of Babur into India led to:
[UPSC CSE Prelims 2015]

1. Introduction of gunpowder in the subcontinent.
2. Introduction of the arch and dome in the region's architecture.
3. Establishment of the Timurid dynasty in the region.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:
 (a) 1 and 2 only
 (b) 3 only
 (c) 1 and 3 only
 (d) 1, 2, and 3

Answer: (b) 3 only

Explanation:

• Statement 1 is incorrect: Gunpowder technology arrived in India earlier, possibly by the mid-14th century, introduced by Mongols.
• Statement 2 is incorrect: The Delhi Sultanate (before Babur) had already introduced the arch and dome architecture.
• Statement 3 is correct: Babur founded the Mughal Empire, also known as the Timurid dynasty (as they were descendants of Timur). 

 15. Ibadat Khana at Fatehpur Sikri was:
[UPSC CSE Prelims 2014]
(a) A mosque for the royal family
 (b) Akbar’s private prayer chamber
 (c) The hall where Akbar held discussions with scholars of various religions
 (d) The room where nobles of different religions gathered to discuss religious affairs

Answer: (c) The hall where Akbar held discussions with scholars of various religions

Explanation:

• Ibadat Khana was built by Akbar in 1575 at Fatehpur Sikri to encourage interfaith dialogues.
• Scholars from Islam, Hinduism, Jainism, Christianity, and Zoroastrianism participated in debates.

 16. What was the immediate reason for Ahmad Shah Abdali to invade India and fight the Third Battle of Panipat?
[UPSC CSE Prelims 2014]
(a) To avenge the expulsion of his Viceroy Timur Shah from Lahore by the Marathas
 (b) Invitation from Adina Beg Khan, the frustrated Governor of Jullundhar
 (c) Punishment for the Mughal administration’s non-payment of revenues of Chahar Mahal (Gujarat, Aurangabad, Sialkot, and Pasrur)
 (d) To annex all fertile plains of Punjab up to Delhi into his kingdom

Answer: (a) To avenge the expulsion of his Viceroy Timur Shah from Lahore by the Marathas

Explanation:

• Ahmad Shah Abdali, ruler of Afghanistan, launched an invasion to retaliate against the Marathas, who had ousted his governor Timur Shah from Lahore.
• This led to the Third Battle of Panipat (1761) between Ahmad Shah Abdali and the Marathas, where the Marathas suffered a massive defeat.

ARCHITECTURES AND PAINTINGS

1. Consider the following pairs:

1. Besnagar - Shaivite cave shrine
2. Bhaja - Buddhist cave shrine
3. Sittanavasal - Jain cave shrine

How many of the above pairs are correctly matched? (UPSC CSE Pre 2023)

(a) Only one
(b) Only two
(c) All three
(d) None

Solution: (b)

• Pair 1 is incorrect: Besnagar (Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh) is known for its Vaishnavite sect, not Shaivite. The Heliodorus Pillar here was erected by a Greek ambassador who became a devotee of Vishnu.
• Pair 2 is correct: Bhaja Caves (Maharashtra) belong to the Hinayana Buddhist sect.
• Pair 3 is correct: Sittanavasal Caves (Tamil Nadu) are Jain caves, used by monks for ascetic life.

2. With reference to ancient India, consider the following statements:

1. The concept of Stupa is Buddhist in origin.
2. Stupa was generally a repository of relics.
3. Stupa was a votive and commemorative structure in Buddhist tradition.

How many of the statements given above are correct? (UPSC CSE Pre 2023)

(a) Only one
(b) Only two
(c) All three
(d) None

Solution: (b)

• Statement 1 is incorrect: Stupas existed before Buddhism as pre-Buddhist burial mounds for sramanas.
• Statement 2 is correct: Stupas served as repositories of relics related to the Buddha.
• Statement 3 is correct: Stupas were also built for votive and commemorative purposes.

3. Consider the following pairs:

1. Dhauli - Odisha
2. Erragudi - Andhra Pradesh
3. Jaugada - Madhya Pradesh
4. Kalsi - Karnataka

How many of the above pairs are correctly matched? (UPSC CSE Pre 2022)

(a) Only one
(b) Only two
(c) Only three
(d) All four

Solution: (b)

• Pair 1 is correct: Dhauli (Odisha) has Ashokan rock edicts.
• Pair 2 is correct: Erragudi (Andhra Pradesh) has Ashokan inscriptions.
• Pair 3 is incorrect: Jaugada is in Odisha, not Madhya Pradesh.
• Pair 4 is incorrect: Kalsi is in Uttarakhand, not Karnataka.

4. Which of the following statements regarding Somnath Temple is correct? (UPSC CSE Pre 2022)

1. It is one of the Jyotirlinga shrines.
2. It was described by Al-Biruni.
3. Its present installation (Pran Pratistha) was done by President S. Radhakrishnan.

(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

Solution: (a)

• Statement 1 is correct: Somnath is the first of the 12 Jyotirlingas.
• Statement 2 is correct: Al-Biruni mentioned it in his writings.
• Statement 3 is incorrect: The modern temple was reconstructed under Sardar Patel, and Dr. Rajendra Prasad performed the Pran-Pratistha.

5. Which ancient town is well-known for its advanced water management system? (UPSC CSE Pre 2021)

(a) Dholavira
(b) Kalibangan
(c) Rakhigarhi
(d) Ropar

Solution: (a)

• Dholavira (Gujarat) had a sophisticated water conservation system, including reservoirs, dams, and drainage channels, showcasing advanced Harappan engineering.

6. With reference to the Chausath Yogini Temple situated near Morena, consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE Pre 2021)

1. It is a circular temple built during the reign of the Kachchhapaghata Dynasty.
2. It is the only circular temple built in India.
3. It was meant to promote the Vaishnava cult in the region.
4. Its design has given rise to a popular belief that it was the inspiration behind the Indian Parliament building.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

(a) 1 and 2
 (b) 2 and 3 only
 (c) 1 and 4
 (d) 2, 3 and 4

Correct Answer: (c) 1 and 4

Statement 1 is correct. The Chausath Yogini Temple near Morena, Madhya Pradesh, was built during the reign of the Kachchhapaghata Dynasty, under King Devapala (c. 1055–1075 CE). The temple was not just a religious structure but also served as an educational center for astrology and mathematics, particularly based on the transit of the Sun.

Statement 2 is incorrect. While the temple is circular in shape, it is not the only circular temple in India. Another notable example is the Chausath Yogini Temple in Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh.

Statement 3 is incorrect. The temple was associated with Shaivism, not Vaishnavism. It is also known as the Ekattarso Mahadeva Temple, referring to the presence of multiple Shivalingas inside. Therefore, it was intended to promote the Shaivite tradition, not the Vaishnavite cult.

Statement 4 is correct. The circular design of the temple has led to widespread speculation that it served as an architectural inspiration for the Indian Parliament (Sansad Bhawan). Though there is no official confirmation, the resemblance between the two structures has been frequently noted.

7. 'Kalyaana Mandapas' was a notable feature in the temple construction in the kingdom of: (UPSC CSE Prelims 2019)
 (a) Chalukya
 (b) Chandela
 (c) Rashtrakuta
 (d) Vijayanagara

 Explanation: The chief characteristics of Vijayanagara architecture included the construction of tall Raya Gopurams (gateways) and Kalyaana Mandapas with carved pillars in temple premises. These were halls used for marriage and other ceremonies.
 Correct answer: (d) Vijayanagara

8. In which of the following relief sculpture inscriptions is 'Ranyo Ashoka' (King Ashoka) mentioned along with the stone portrait of Ashoka? (UPSC CSE Prelims 2019)
 (a) Kanganahalli
 (b) Sanchi
 (c) Shahbazgarhi
 (d) Sohgaura

 Explanation: Kanganahalli, located in Karnataka, contains an inscription in Brahmi script reading "Ranyo Ashoka" and features the only stone portrait of King Ashoka discovered so far.
 Correct answer: (a) Kanganahalli

9. The well-known painting "Bani Thani" belongs to the: (UPSC CSE Prelims 2018)
 (a) Bundi school
 (b) Jaipur school
 (c) Kangra school
 (d) Kishangarh school

 Explanation: The Bani Thani painting belongs to the Kishangarh school of Rajasthan. Painted by Nihal Chand, it portrays a woman with exaggerated features such as a long neck, large almond-shaped eyes, and long fingers. This style is a hallmark of the Kishangarh school of miniature paintings.
 Correct answer: (d) Kishangarh school

10. The painting of Bodhisattva Padmapani is one of the most famous and oft-illustrated paintings at: (UPSC CSE Prelims 2017)
 (a) Ajanta
 (b) Badami
 (c) Bagh
 (d) Ellora

 Explanation: The famous Bodhisattva Padmapani painting is a mural found in the Ajanta Caves. It is preserved in the interior of Ajanta Cave I, a rock-cut Buddhist monastery known for its exquisite frescoes.
 Correct answer: (a) Ajanta

11. Which of the following places are famous for Sun temples? (UPSC CSE Prelims 2017)

1. 1. Arasavalli
   2. Amarkantak
   3. Omkareshwar

Select the correct answer using the code below:
 (a) 1 only
 (b) 2 and 3 only
 (c) 1 and 3 only
 (d) 1, 2, and 3

 Explanation: The Sun Temple at Arasavalli in Srikakulam, Andhra Pradesh, is dedicated to Lord Suryanarayana. However, there is no Sun Temple at Amarkantak, and Omkareshwar Temple in Mysore is dedicated to Lord Shiva, not the Sun God.
 Correct answer: (a) 1 only

12. What is common to both Ajanta and Mahabalipuram? (UPSC CSE Prelims 2016)

• Both were built in the same period.
• Both belong to the same religious denomination.
• Both have rock-cut monuments.

Select the correct answer using the code below:
 (a) 1 and 2 only
 (b) 3 only
 (c) 1 and 3 only
 (d) None

 Explanation:

• Ajanta Caves (2nd century BCE – 480 CE) are Buddhist cave monuments.
• Mahabalipuram monuments (7th century CE) belong to Hinduism.
• Both feature rock-cut architecture, making statement 3 correct, but statements 1 and 2 incorrect.
  Correct answer: (b) 3 only

13. Consider the following pairs: (UPSC CSE Prelims 2016)

Place	Region
1. Bodhgaya	Baghelkhand
2. Khajuraho	Bundelkhand
3. Shirdi	Vidarbha
4. Nasik (Nashik)	Malwa
5. Tirupati	Rayalaseema

Which of the pairs given above are correctly matched?
 (a) 1, 2, and 4 only
 (b) 2, 3, 4, and 5 only
 (c) 2 and 5 only
 (d) 1, 3, 4, and 5 only
 Explanation:

• Khajuraho (Bundelkhand) and Tirupati (Rayalaseema) are correctly matched.
• Bodhgaya is in Bihar, not Baghelkhand.
• Shirdi is in Ahmednagar, not Vidarbha.
• Nashik is in Maharashtra, not Malwa.
  Correct answer: (c) 2 and 5 only

14. Who among the following first deciphered the edicts of Emperor Ashoka? (UPSC CSE Prelims 2016)
 (a) Georg Bühler
 (b) James Prinsep
 (c) Max Müller
 (d) William Jones

 Explanation:

• The edicts of Ashoka were deciphered by James Prinsep, a British archaeologist and historian, in the 19th century.
• He also deciphered the Kharosthi script, used in northwestern India to write Sanskrit and Prakrit.
  Correct answer: (b) James Prinsep

15. Which among the following was made earliest? (UPSC CSE Prelims 2015)
 (a) Lingaraja Temple at Bhubaneswar
 (b) Rock-cut Elephant at Dhauli
 (c) Rock-cut Monuments at Mahabalipuram
 (d) Varaha Image at Udayagiri

 Explanation:

• Lingaraja Temple (11th century CE)
• Rock-cut Elephant at Dhauli (3rd century BCE)
• Rock-cut Monuments at Mahabalipuram (7th century CE)
• Varaha Image at Udayagiri (5th century CE)
• The earliest among these is the Rock-cut Elephant at Dhauli (3rd century BCE), which dates to the Mauryan period and is associated with Emperor Ashoka.
  Correct answer: (b) Rock-cut Elephant at Dhauli

16. Kalamkari painting refers to: (UPSC CSE Prelims 2015)
 (a) A hand-painted cotton textile in South India.
 (b) A handmade drawing on bamboo handicrafts in Northeast India.
 (c) A block-painted woollen cloth in the Western Himalayan region of India.
 (d) A hand-painted decorative silk cloth in Northwestern India.

 Explanation:

• Kalamkari is a type of hand-painted cotton textile, produced mainly in Andhra Pradesh.
• Only natural dyes are used, and the process involves 23 steps.
• The two major styles of Kalamkari are Machilipatnam style and Srikalahasti style.
  Correct answer: (a) A hand-painted cotton textile in South India. 

17. With reference to the Indian history of art and culture, consider the following pairs: (UPSC CSE Prelims 2014)

Feature	Location
1. A grand image of Buddha's Mahaparinirvana with numerous celestial musicians above and the sorrowful figures of his followers below	Ajanta
2. A huge image of Varaha Avatar (Boar incarnation) of Vishnu, as he rescues Goddess Earth from the deep and chaotic waters, sculpted on rock	Mount Abu
3. "Arjuna's Penance" / "Descent of Ganga" sculpted	Mamallapuram

Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
 (a) 1 and 2 only
 (b) 3 only
 (c) 1 and 3 only
 (d) 1, 2, and 3

Explanation:

• Pair 1 is correct. The Ajanta Cave 26 features a grand image of Buddha's Mahaparinirvana with celestial musicians above and sorrowful followers below.
• Pair 2 is incorrect. The Varaha Avatar sculpture is found in Mamallapuram, not Mount Abu.
• Pair 3 is correct. "Arjuna's Penance" or "Descent of the Ganga" is a famous rock relief in Mamallapuram from the Pallava period.
  Correct answer: (c) 1 and 3 only

18. Buddhist rock-cut caves are called Chaityas, while the others are called Viharas. What is the difference between the two? (UPSC CSE Prelims 2014)

(a) Vihara is a place of worship, while Chaitya is the dwelling place of the monks
 (b) Chaitya is a place of worship, while Vihara is the dwelling place of the monks
 (c) Chaitya is the stupa at the far end of the cave, while Vihara is the hall axial to it
 (d) There is no material difference between the two

Explanation:

• Chaityas are prayer halls with a stupa at the end and were primarily used for worship and discussions.
• Viharas are monastic dwellings built for monks to reside and meditate.
• Correct answer: (b) Chaitya is a place of worship, while Vihara is the dwelling place of the monks

19. With reference to the history of Indian rock-cut architecture, consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE Prelims 2014)

1. The caves at Badami are the oldest surviving rock-cut caves in India.
   
   
2. The Barabar rock-cut caves were originally made for Ajivikas by Emperor Chandragupta Maurya.
   
   
3. At Ellora, caves were made for different faiths.
   
   

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
 (a) 1 only
 (b) 2 and 3 only
 (c) 3 only
 (d) 1, 2, and 3

Explanation:

• Statement 1 is incorrect. The oldest rock-cut caves in India are the Barabar caves in Bihar, not Badami.
• Statement 2 is incorrect. The Barabar caves were built by Emperor Ashoka, not Chandragupta Maurya, for the Ajivika sect.
• Statement 3 is correct. The Ellora Caves (Maharashtra) house Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain cave temples, reflecting religious harmony.
  Correct answer: (c) 3 only

20. Consider the following historical places: (UPSC CSE Prelims 2014)
1. Ajanta Caves

2. Lepakshi Temple
3. Sanchi Stupa

Which of the above places is/are also known for mural paintings?
 (a) 1 only
 (b) 1 and 2 only
 (c) 1, 2, and 3
 (d) None

Explanation:

• Ajanta Caves are world-famous for their murals depicting Buddhist themes and Jataka tales.
• Lepakshi Temple (Andhra Pradesh) contains Vijayanagara-era mural paintings on its walls and ceilings.
• Sanchi Stupa is known for sculptural reliefs but does not have mural paintings.
  Correct answer: (b) 1 and 2 only

LITERATURE AND PERFORMING ARTS

1. Consider the following statements regarding the Upanishads and Puranas: (UPSC: 2024)

1.    There are no parables in the Upanishads.

2.    The Upanishads were composed earlier than the Puranas.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only
 (b) 2 only
 (c) Both 1 and 2
 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

Explanation: (b) 2 only.

1.    Statement 1: "There are no parables in the Upanishads."

○     This statement is incorrect.

○     The Upanishads contain several parables and allegorical stories to illustrate deep philosophical and spiritual teachings.

○     Examples include:

■     The Parable of Two Birds (Mundaka Upanishad & Shvetashvatara Upanishad) – Symbolizing the Atman (self) and Jivatman (individual soul).

■     The Parable of the Chariot (Katha Upanishad) – Depicting the relationship between the body, mind, and soul.

2.    Statement 2: "The Upanishads were composed earlier than the Puranas."

○     This statement is correct.

○     The Upanishads are part of Vedic literature and were composed during the Later Vedic Period (c. 800 BCE – 200 BCE).

○     The Puranas, on the other hand, were composed much later, beginning from the early centuries of the Common Era (approximately 4th century CE onwards).

○     Thus, the Upanishads predate the Puranas by several centuries.

2. Which among the following literary works is attributed to the ancient Sanskrit playwright Bhāsa? (UPSC: 2024)

(a) Kavyalankara
 (b) Natyashastra
 (c) Madhyamavyayoga
 (d) Mahabhashya

Explanation: c

Bhāsa is regarded as one of the earliest known playwrights of Sanskrit literature. Though the exact period of his existence remains uncertain—estimated anywhere between 475 BCE and the 11th century CE—references to him by the poet Nannaya (circa 400 CE) suggest he may have lived around 350 CE.

Bhāsa is credited with composing several Sanskrit plays, some of the most well-known being Madhyamavyayoga, DutaGhatotkacha, Dutavakya, Balacharita, and Charudatta.

●     Kavyalankara (Option a) is a well-known work on Sanskrit poetics but not attributed to Bhāsa.

●     Natyashastra (Option b) is an ancient text on dramaturgy authored by Bharata Muni, not Bhāsa.

●     Mahabhashya (Option d) is a seminal work on Sanskrit grammar, written by Patanjali.

●     Madhyamavyayoga (Option c), however, is one of Bhāsa's well-known plays. 

3. Sanghabhuti, an Indian Buddhist monk who traveled to China at the end of the 4th century AD, authored a commentary on which of the following texts? (UPSC: 2024)

(a) Prajnaparamita Sutra
 (b) Visuddhimagga
 (c) Sarvastivada Vinaya
 (d) Lalitavistara

Explanation: (c) Sarvastivada Vinaya

India played a crucial role in the spread of Buddhism to China, fostering strong cultural and religious ties. As early as the first century BCE, Buddhist monks such as Dharmaratna and Kāśyapa Mātaṅga traveled to China, dedicating their lives to translating Buddhist texts and spreading the religion. By the third and fourth centuries CE, Buddhism had gained widespread acceptance in China.

During this period, several Indian Buddhist scholars, including Kumārajīva, Sanghabhūti, Gyanabhadra, Buddhabhadra, Jīvagupta, Dharmagupta, Prabhākāramitra, and Sudhākaraśiṅgha, traveled to China to propagate Buddhist teachings. Likewise, Chinese pilgrims such as Fa-Hien, Xuanzang (Hiuen-Tsang), and Yijing (I-Tsing) journeyed to India in search of Buddhist knowledge.

Among these scholars, Sanghabhūti was a notable figure who contributed to Buddhist literature. He is particularly known for his commentary on the Sarvāstivāda Vinaya, a set of monastic rules followed by the Sarvāstivāda school of Buddhism.

●     Prajnaparamita Sutra (Option a) is a Mahayana Buddhist text focusing on the philosophy of emptiness but is not associated with Sanghabhūti.

●     Visuddhimagga (Option b) is a Theravāda Buddhist text on meditation and ethics, written by Buddhaghosa, not Sanghabhūti.

●     Lalitavistara (Option d) is a Mahayana text that narrates the life of the Buddha.

●     Sarvastivada Vinaya (Option c), however, is the text for which Sanghabhūti wrote a commentary.

4. According to Kautilya's Arthashastra, consider the following statements:

1. A person could be a slave as a result of a judicial punishment.
2. If a female slave bore her master a son, she was legally free.
3. If a son born to a female slave was fathered by her master, the son was entitled to the legal status of the master's son.

Which of the statements given above are correct?
 [UPSC CSE Pre. 2022]
 (a) 1 and 2 only
 (b) 2 and 3 only
 (c) 1 and 3 only
 (d) 1, 2 and 3

Solution: (b)
 Explanation:

• Statement 1 is incorrect – Though Kautilya's Arthashastra mentions that a person could become a slave due to judicial punishment, the official UPSC answer key marks this statement as incorrect.
• Statement 2 is correct – The Arthashastra provided protection to slaves, especially female slaves. If a female slave gave birth to her master's child, both the mother and the child were considered legally free.
• Statement 3 is correct – According to the Arthashastra, if a female slave bore a son fathered by her master, the son was entitled to the legal status of the master's son.

5. With reference to the history of ancient India, consider the following statements:

1. Mitakshara was the civil law for upper castes, and Dayabhaga was the civil law for lower castes.
2. In the Mitakshara system, sons could claim rights to property during the father's lifetime, whereas in the Dayabhaga system, they could do so only after the father's death.
3. The Mitakshara system dealt only with property held by male family members, whereas the Dayabhaga system dealt with property held by both male and female members.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:
 [UPSC CSE Pre. 2021]
 (a) 1 and 2
 (b) 2 only
 (c) 1 and 3
 (d) 3 only

Solution: (b)
 Explanation:

• Statement 1 is incorrect – Mitakshara and Dayabhaga were both important schools of Hindu law, but they applied to all castes. Mitakshara was followed across India except in West Bengal and Assam, where Dayabhaga was practiced.
• Statement 2 is correct – In the Mitakshara system, property rights were acquired at birth, meaning a son could claim property during his father's lifetime. In contrast, under the Dayabhaga system, inheritance took place only after the father's death.
• Statement 3 is incorrect – Both Mitakshara and Dayabhaga systems dealt with property rights for both male and female members, though Mitakshara was more restrictive towards women’s rights, while Dayabhaga was relatively more liberal.

6. With reference to scholars/litterateurs of ancient India, consider the following statements:

1. Panini is associated with Pushyamitra.
2. Amarasimha is associated with Harshavardhana.
3. Kalidasa is associated with Chandragupta II.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
 [UPSC CSE Pre. 2020]
 (a) 1 and 2 only
 (b) 2 and 3 only
 (c) 3 only
 (d) 1, 2 and 3

Solution: (c)
 Explanation:

• Statement 1 is incorrect – Panini, the Sanskrit grammarian, belonged to the 5th-6th century BCE, whereas Pushyamitra Shunga ruled in the 2nd century BCE. There is no connection between them.
• Statement 2 is incorrect – Amarasimha was one of the Navratnas in the court of Chandragupta II, not Harshavardhana.
• Statement 3 is correct – Kalidasa was a famous poet and dramatist in the court of Chandragupta II.

7. With reference to the cultural history of India, consider the following statements:

1. Most of Tyagaraja's Kritis are devotional songs in praise of Lord Krishna.
2. Tyagaraja created several new ragas.
3. Annamacharya and Tyagaraja were contemporaries.
4. Annamacharya's kirtanas are devotional songs in praise of Lord Venkateshwara.

Which of the statements given above are correct?
 [UPSC CSE Pre. 2018]
 (a) 1 and 3 only
 (b) 2 and 4 only
 (c) 1, 2 and 3 only
 (d) 2, 3 and 4 only

Solution: (b)
 Explanation:

• Statement 1 is incorrect – Tyagaraja composed thousands of devotional compositions, but they were in praise of Lord Rama, not Lord Krishna.
• Statement 2 is correct – Tyagaraja was known for composing in new ragas. He is credited with introducing around 66 new ragas.
• Statement 3 is incorrect – Annamacharya lived in the 15th century, whereas Tyagaraja was born in 1767. They were not contemporaries.
• Statement 4 is correct – Annamacharya composed thousands of kirtanas in praise of Lord Venkateshwara.

8. Consider the following pairs:

Tradition	State
Chapchar Kut – Festival	Mizoram
Khongjom Parba – Ballad	Manipur
Thang-Ta – Dance	Sikkim

Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
 [UPSC CSE Pre. 2018]
 (a) 1 only
 (b) 1 and 2 only
 (c) 1 and 3 only
 (d) 2 and 3 only

Solution: (b)
 Explanation:

• Pair 1 is correct – Chapchar Kut is a major festival celebrated in Mizoram.
• Pair 2 is correct – Khongjom Parba is a ballad from Manipur that narrates the story of the Anglo-Manipur War of 1891.
• Pair 3 is incorrect – Thang-Ta is a traditional martial art form from Manipur, not Sikkim.

9. With reference to Manipuri Sankirtana, consider the following statements:

1. It is a song and dance performance.
2. Cymbals are the only musical instruments used in the performance.
3. It is performed to narrate the life and deeds of Lord Krishna.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
 [UPSC CSE Pre. 2017]
 (a) 1, 2 and 3
 (b) 1 and 3 only
 (c) 2 and 3 only
 (d) 1 only

Solution: (b)
 Explanation:

• Statement 1 is correct – Manipuri Sankirtana is a traditional art form that involves ritual singing, drumming, and dancing in the temples and domestic spaces of Manipur. It is performed mainly by the Vaishnava community of the Manipur plains.
• Statement 2 is incorrect – While cymbals (kartal) are used, they are not the only musical instruments. Other instruments include the pung (drum), flute, harmonium, and violin.
• Statement 3 is correct – The performances narrate the life and deeds of Lord Krishna, central to Vaishnava traditions in Manipur.

10. Which one of the following books of ancient India contains the love story of the son of the founder of the Sunga dynasty?

[UPSC CSE Pre. 2016]
 (a) Swapnavasavadatta
 (b) Malavikagnimitra
 (c) Meghadoota
 (d) Ratnavali

Solution: (b)
 Explanation:

• Malavikagnimitra is a Sanskrit play by Kalidasa that tells the love story of Agnimitra, the Sunga Emperor, and Malavika, an exiled servant girl.

11. With reference to the famous Sattriya dance, consider the following statements:

1. Sattriya is a combination of music, dance, and drama.
2. It is a centuries-old living tradition of Vaishnavites of Assam.
3. It is based on classical Ragas and Talas of devotional songs composed by Tulsidas, Kabir, and Mirabai.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
 [UPSC CSE Pre. 2014]
 (a) 1 only
 (b) 1 and 2 only
 (c) 2 and 3 only
 (d) 1, 2 and 3

Solution: (b)
 Explanation:

• Statement 1 is correct – Sattriya is a form of performing art that includes music, dance, and drama.
• Statement 2 is correct – It was introduced in Assam by the Vaishnava saint Srimanta Sankaradeva in the 15th century as part of the Bhakti movement.
• Statement 3 is incorrect – Sattriya is not based on compositions of Tulsidas, Kabir, and Mirabai. Instead, it follows the devotional compositions of Sankaradeva and his disciple Madhavadeva.

12. Consider the following pairs:

Dance Form	State
Garba	Gujarat
Mohiniattam	Odisha
Yakshagana	Karnataka

Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
 [UPSC CSE Pre. 2014]
 (a) 1 only
 (b) 2 and 3 only
 (c) 1 and 3 only
 (d) 1, 2 and 3

Solution: (c)
 Explanation:

• Pair 1 is correct – Garba is a traditional folk dance of Gujarat, performed during Navratri.
• Pair 2 is incorrect – Mohiniattam is a classical dance form of Kerala, not Odisha.
• Pair 3 is correct – Yakshagana is a theatre and dance form from Karnataka that narrates mythological and historical stories.

13. A community of people called Manganiyars is well known for their:

[UPSC CSE Pre. 2014]
 (a) Martial arts in North-East India
 (b) Musical tradition in North-West India
 (c) Classical vocal music in South India
 (d) Pietra dura tradition in Central India

Solution: (b)
 Explanation:

• Manganiyars are a tribal Muslim community from Rajasthan (North-West India) known for their rich musical traditions.
• Despite being Muslims, their music often includes praises of Hindu deities and is performed during Hindu festivals like Diwali and Holi.

14. In the context of the cultural history of India, a pose in dance and dramatics called Tribhanga has been a favorite of Indian artists from ancient times to today. Which one of the following statements best describes this pose?

[UPSC CSE Pre. 2014]
 (a) One leg is bent and the body is slightly but oppositely curved at the waist and neck.
 (b) Facial expressions, hand gestures, and make-up are combined to symbolize certain epic or historical characters.
 (c) Movements of body, face, and hands are used to express oneself or to tell a story.
 (d) A little smile, slightly curved waist, and certain hand gestures are emphasized to express the feelings of love or eroticism.

Solution: (a)
 Explanation:

• Tribhanga is a classical Indian dance pose where the body is bent at three points: the neck, waist, and knee.
• It has been widely depicted in Indian sculptures and paintings for over 2,000 years, often associated with grace, beauty, and the feminine form.
• It is commonly seen in Odissi dance and other classical art forms.

PHILOSOPHIES

1. With reference to ancient India, Gautama Buddha was commonly known by which of the following epithets? (UPSC CSE Pre. 2024)

1.    Nayaputta

2.    Shakyamuni

3.    Tathagata

Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

(a) 1 only
 (b) 2 and 3 only
 (c) 1, 2, and 3
 (d) None of the above are epithets of Gautama Buddha

Explanation: (b) 2 and 3 only

Several epithets were used in ancient texts to refer to prominent religious figures, including Gautama Buddha and Mahavira.

●     Nayaputta: This term is not associated with Gautama Buddha. Instead, it is used in Jain texts to refer to Mahavira, as he was born into the Jñātṛ (Naya) clan.

●     Shakyamuni: This is an epithet of Gautama Buddha, meaning "Sage of the Shakyas." It signifies his association with the Shakya clan, into which he was born.

●     Tathagata: This is another title used by Gautama Buddha to refer to himself or other Buddhas. It is interpreted as “Thus-come” or “Thus-gone”, representing enlightenment and transcendence beyond worldly existence.

2. "Souls are not only the property of animal and plant life, but also of rocks, running water, and many other natural objects not looked on as living by other religious sects." (UPSC CSE Pre. 2023)

This statement reflects one of the core beliefs of which one of the following religious sects of ancient India?
 (a) Buddhism
 (b) Jainism
 (c) Shaivism
 (d) Vaishnavism

Solution: (b)

Explanation: Jainism holds that not only animals and plants but even inanimate objects such as rocks, air, and water possess souls. This belief is deeply connected to the Jain principle of Ahimsa (non-violence), which prohibits causing harm to any living being, including microorganisms.

3. The world's second tallest statue in a sitting pose of Ramanuja was inaugurated by the Prime Minister of India in Hyderabad. Which one of the following statements correctly represents the teachings of Ramanuja? (UPSC CSE Pre. 2022)

(a) The best means of salvation was devotion.
 (b) Vedas are eternal, self-existent, and wholly authoritative.
 (c) Logical arguments were essential means for the highest bliss.
 (d) Salvation was to be obtained through meditation.

Solution: (a)

Explanation: Ramanuja, a 12th-century philosopher, was a proponent of Vishishtadvaita Vedanta, which emphasized Bhakti (devotion) to Vishnu as the supreme means of attaining salvation. He was influenced by the Alvar saints and their devotional movement.

4. With reference to Indian history, consider the following texts: (UPSC CSE Pre. 2022)

1. Nettipakarana
2. Parishishtaparvan
3. Avadanashataka
4. Trishashtilakshana Mahapurana

Which of the above are Jaina texts?
 (a) 1, 2 and 3
 (b) 2 and 4 only
 (c) 1, 3 and 4
 (d) 2, 3 and 4

Solution: (b)

Explanation:

• Nettipakarana (incorrect) – A Buddhist text containing interpretative methodologies.
• Parishishtaparvan (correct) – A Jain text by Hemachandra, detailing the lives of Jain teachers.
• Avadanashataka (incorrect) – A Buddhist Jataka-style text describing karmic retribution.
• Trishashtilakshana Mahapurana (correct) – A major Jain text by Acharya Jinasena.

5. With reference to Indian history, consider the following pairs: (UPSC CSE Pre. 2022)

Name	Associated Tradition
1. Aryadeva	Jaina scholar
2. Dignaga	Buddhist scholar
3. Nathamuni	Vaishnava scholar

How many pairs given above are correctly matched?
 (a) None of the pairs
 (b) Only one pair
 (c) Only two pairs
 (d) All three pairs

Solution: (c)

Explanation:

• Aryadeva (incorrect) – He was a disciple of Nagarjuna and a major figure in the Madhyamaka school of Mahayana Buddhism, not Jainism.
• Dignaga (correct) – A Buddhist scholar, known for his contributions to Buddhist logic and epistemology.
• Nathamuni (correct) – A Vaishnavite scholar who founded the Sri Vaishnavism tradition and compiled the Nalayira Divya Prabandham.

6. With reference to the history of ancient India, Bhavabhuti, Hastimalla, and Kshemeshvara were famous as: (UPSC CSE Pre. 2021)

(a) Jain monks
 (b) Playwrights
 (c) Temple architects
 (d) Philosophers

Solution: (b)

Explanation:

• Bhavabhuti – An 8th-century Sanskrit dramatist, known for plays like Malatimadhava and Uttararamacharita.
• Hastimalla – A 13th-century Kannada writer in the Hoysala Empire, known for Purvapurana.
• Kshemeshvara – A Kashmiri poet from the 11th century, known for Dasavatar Charita.

7. With reference to the cultural history of India, which one of the following is the correct description of the term 'paramitas'? (UPSC CSE Pre. 2020)

(a) The earliest Dharmashastra texts written in aphoristic (sutra) style.
 (b) Philosophical schools that did not accept the authority of the Vedas.
 (c) Perfections whose attainment led to the Bodhisattva path.
 (d) Powerful merchant guilds of early medieval South India.

Solution: (c)

Explanation: The six paramitas in Mahayana Buddhism refer to the "perfections" or virtues that a Bodhisattva cultivates to attain enlightenment:

1. Dana paramita – Generosity
2. Sila paramita – Morality
3. Kshanti paramita – Patience
4. Virya paramita – Effort
5. Dhyana paramita – Meditation
6. Prajna paramita – Wisdom

8. With reference to the religious history of India, consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE Pre. 2020)

1. Sthaviravadins belong to Mahayana Buddhism.
2. Lokottaravadin sect was an offshoot of the Mahasanghika sect of Buddhism.
3. The deification of Buddha by Mahasanghikas fostered Mahayana Buddhism.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
 (a) 1 and 2 only
 (b) 2 and 3 only
 (c) 3 only
 (d) 1, 2 and 3

Solution: (b)

Explanation:

• Statement 1 (Incorrect): The Sthaviravadins were an early Hinayana sect, not Mahayana.
• Statement 2 (Correct): The Lokottaravadins emerged from the Mahasanghikas, who believed the Buddha was transcendental and beyond human limitations.
• Statement 3 (Correct): The Mahasanghikas were instrumental in the deification of the Buddha, which later influenced the development of Mahayana Buddhism.

9. In the context of India's cultural history, examine the following pairs: (UPSC CSE Prelims 2020)

1. Parivrajaka – Renunciant and Wanderer
2. Shramana – Priest of high status
3. Upasaka – Lay follower of Buddhism

Which of the above pairs are correctly matched?
 (a) 1 and 2 only
 (b) 1 and 3 only
 (c) 2 and 3 only
 (d) 1, 2, and 3

Solution: (b)

Explanation:

• Pair 1 is correct: Parivrajaka means wandering renunciant. In Indian tradition, "Hamsa" (swan) symbolizes a migrating soul, aligning with the concept of a renunciant seeking spiritual liberation.
• Pair 2 is incorrect: The Shramana tradition was anti-Vedic and anti-Brahmanic, opposing the Varna and Jati It did not include high-status priests.
• Pair 3 is correct: Upasaka refers to a lay devotee of Gautama Buddha.

10. Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE Prelims 2019)

1. Saint Nimbarka was a contemporary of Akbar.
2. Saint Kabir was greatly influenced by Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
 (a) 1 only
 (b) 2 only
 (c) Both 1 and 2
 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

Solution: (d)

Explanation:

• Statement 1 is incorrect: Nimbarka was a 12th–13th century philosopher, whereas Akbar ruled in the 16th–17th centuries (1556–1605).
• Statement 2 is incorrect: Kabir was a 15th-century (1398–1518) poet, while Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi was born in 1564, long after Kabir’s death.

11. Consider the following characteristics: (UPSC CSE Prelims 2019)

1. Deification of the Buddha
2. Treading the path of Bodhisattvas
3. Image worship and rituals

Which of these are features of Mahayana Buddhism?
 (a) 1 only
 (b) 1 and 2 only
 (c) 2 and 3 only
 (d) 1, 2, and 3

Solution: (d)

Explanation:

• Mahayana Buddhism promotes idol worship of Buddha.
• Bodhisattva is an ideal in Mahayana Buddhism, emphasizing the pursuit of enlightenment for the benefit of others.

12.In Indian history, who among the following is regarded as the future Buddha, yet to descend to save the world? (UPSC CSE Prelims 2018)

(a) Avalokiteshvara
 (b) Lokesvara
 (c) Maitreya
 (d) Padmapani

Solution: (c)

Explanation:
 Maitreya is believed to be the future Buddha, who will reappear when the teachings of Gautama Buddha have decayed.

13. The Sthanakvasi sect belongs to which religious tradition in India?(UPSC CSE Prelims 2018)

(a) Buddhism
 (b) Jainism
 (c) Vaishnavism
 (d) Shaivism

Solution: (b)

Explanation:
 Sthanakvasi is a subsect of the Shvetambara tradition of Jainism. It rejects idol worship, emphasizing meditation and self-discipline for attaining Moksha.

14. With reference to India's religious history, consider the following statements:(UPSC CSE Prelims 2017)

1. Sautrantika and Sammitiya were sects of Jainism.
2. The Sarvastivadin school held that all phenomena exist eternally in a latent form.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
 (a) 1 only
 (b) 2 only
 (c) Both 1 and 2
 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

Solution: (b)

Explanation:

• Statement 1 is incorrect: Sautrantika and Sammitiya were sects of Buddhism, not Jainism.
• Statement 2 is correct: The Sarvastivadin school of Buddhism believed that all things exist continuously across past, present, and future.

15. Regarding the concept of the Bodhisattva in Buddhism, consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE Prelims 2016)

1. The Bodhisattva concept is central to the Hinayana sect.
2. A Bodhisattva is a compassionate being on the path to enlightenment.
3. A Bodhisattva delays their own salvation to help others attain it.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
 (a) 1 only
 (b) 2 and 3 only
 (c) 2 only
 (d) 1, 2, and 3

Solution: (b)

Explanation:

• Statement 1 is incorrect: The concept of the Bodhisattva is central to Mahayana Buddhism, not Hinayana.
• Statement 2 is correct: A Bodhisattva is a compassionate figure dedicated to enlightenment.
• Statement 3 is correct: Bodhisattvas renounce their own liberation to assist others on their spiritual journey.

16. Which of the following kingdoms were associated with the life of Buddha?(UPSC CSE Prelims 2014)

1. Avanti
2. Gandhara
3. Kosala
4. Magadha

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1, 2, and 3
 (b) 2 and 4 only
 (c) 3 and 4 only
 (d) 1, 3, and 4

Solution: (c)

Explanation:

• Kosala and Magadha were directly associated with Buddha's life.
• Buddha was born in Lumbini, part of the Kosala kingdom, and attained Mahaparinirvana in Kusinara (part of Magadha).
• Gandhara and Avanti were influenced by Buddhism later, mainly during the Mauryan Empire under Ashoka.

17. Consider the following Bhakti saints:(UPSC CSE Prelims 2013)

1. Dadu Dayal
2. Guru Nanak
3. Tyagaraja

Who among them was preaching when the Lodi dynasty fell and Babur took over?

(a) 1 and 3 only
 (b) 2 only
 (c) 2 and 3 only
 (d) 1 and 2 only

Solution: (b)

Explanation:

• The Lodi dynasty fell in 1526 when Ibrahim Lodi was defeated by Babur at the First Battle of Panipat.
• Guru Nanak (1469–1539) was actively preaching at the time.
• Dadu Dayal was born in 1544, and Tyagaraja was born much later in 1767.

MISCELLANEOUS

1. Consider the following properties that are part of UNESCO’s World Heritage List: (UPSC: 2024)

1. Shantiniketan
2. Rani-ki-Vav
3. Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysalas
4. Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodh Gaya

How many of these properties were included in the list in 2023?

(a) Only one
 (b) Only two
 (c) Only three
 (d) All four

Explanation:  (b) Only two

UNESCO’s World Heritage List recognizes cultural and natural sites of outstanding universal value. The inclusion of Indian sites in this prestigious list reflects their global significance.

• The Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodh Gaya was inscribed in 2002.
• Rani-ki-Vav (The Queen’s Stepwell) in Patan, Gujarat was added in 2014.
• The Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysalas were recognized as a World Heritage Site in 2023.
• Shantiniketan, founded by Rabindranath Tagore, was also inscribed in 2023.

Thus, two properties—Shantiniketan and the Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysalas—were added in 2023.

2. With reference to ancient Indian History, consider the following pairs:

1. Devichandraguptam – Bilhana
2. Hammira-Mahakavya – Nayachandra Suri
3. Milinda-panha – Nagarjuna
4. Nitivakyamrita – Somadeva Suri

How many of the above pairs are correctly matched? [UPSC CSE Pre 2023]
 (a) Only one
 (b) Only two
 (c) Only three
 (d) All four

Solution: (b)
 Exp) Pair 1 is incorrectly matched: Devichandraguptam is a Sanskrit play written by Vishakhadatta, not Bilhana.
 Pair 2 is correctly matched: Hammira Mahakavya is a Sanskrit epic written by Nayachandra Suri.
 Pair 3 is correctly matched: Milinda Panha (Questions of King Milinda) is a Buddhist text attributed to Nagasena, not Nagarjuna.
 Pair 4 is correctly matched: Nitivakyamrita was written by Somadeva Suri.

3. In medieval India, the term "Fanam" referred to: [UPSC CSE Pre 2022]
(a) Clothing
(b) Coins
 (c) Ornaments
 (d) Weapons

Solution: (b)
 Exp) The Fanam was a small gold coin widely used in medieval South India, especially in the Travancore region. The word Fanam (or Panam) is still used in Kerala and Tamil Nadu as a synonym for wealth.

4. Consider the following pairs:

1. Burzahom – Rock-cut shrines
2. Chandra-Ketugarh – Terracotta art
3. Ganeshwar – Copper artefacts

Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched? [UPSC CSE Pre 2021]
 (a) 1 only
 (b) 1 and 2
 (c) 3 only
 (d) 2 and 3

Solution: (d)
 Exp) Pair 1 is incorrectly matched: Burzahom (Jammu & Kashmir) is a Neolithic site, and rock-cut shrines were not part of this period.
 Pair 2 is correctly matched: Chandraketugarh (West Bengal) is famous for terracotta art.
 Pair 3 is correctly matched: Ganeshwar (Rajasthan) is an important site that yielded copper artefacts associated with the Harappan civilization.

5. Consider the following statements:

1. St. Francis Xavier was one of the founding members of the Jesuit Order.
2. St. Francis Xavier died in Goa, and a church is dedicated to him there.
3. The Feast of St. Francis Xavier is celebrated in Goa each year.

Which of the statements given above are correct? [UPSC CSE Pre 2021]
 (a) 1 and 2 only
 (b) 2 and 3 only
 (c) 1 and 3 only
 (d) 1, 2 and 3

Solution: (c)
 Exp) Statement 1 is correct: St. Francis Xavier was a founding member of the Jesuit Order.
 Statement 2 is incorrect: He died on the island of Sancian (China), not in Goa.
 Statement 3 is correct: The Feast of St. Francis Xavier is celebrated in Goa on 3rd December every year.

6. Which one of the following statements is correct? [UPSC CSE Pre 2021]
(a) Ajanta Caves lie in the gorge of Waghora River.
(b) Sanchi Stupa lies in the gorge of Chambal River.
 (c) Pandu-lena Cave Shrines lie in the gorge of Narmada River.
 (d) Amaravati Stupa lies in the gorge of Godavari River.

Solution: (a)
 Exp) Ajanta Caves are located in the gorge of the Waghora River in Aurangabad, Maharashtra.
 Sanchi is not in the Chambal gorge but near the Betwa River.
 Pandu-lena caves are near the Gomai River, not the Narmada.
 Amaravati Stupa is near the Krishna River, not the Godavari.

7. Consider the following statements:

1. 21st February is declared to be the International Mother Language Day by UNICEF.
2. The demand that Bangla has to be one of the national languages was raised in the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan.

Which of the above statements is/are correct? [UPSC CSE Pre 2021]
 (a) 1 only
 (b) 2 only
 (c) Both 1 and 2
 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

Solution: (b)
 Exp) Statement 1 is incorrect: 21st February was declared International Mother Language Day by UNESCO, not UNICEF.
 Statement 2 is correct: The demand for Bengali as a national language was raised in the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan in 1948 by Dhirendranath Datta, but it was rejected. Bengali was later given official status in 1956.

8. With reference to India, the terms 'Halbi, Ho, and Kui' pertain to: [UPSC CSE Pre 2021]
(a) Dance forms of Northwest India
(b) Musical instruments
 (c) Pre-historic cave paintings
 (d) Tribal languages

Solution: (d)
 Exp) Halbi, Ho, and Kui are tribal languages spoken in different parts of India:

• Halbi – Spoken in Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, and Odisha.
• Ho – Spoken in Jharkhand and Odisha, written in Warang Chiti script.
• Kui – A Dravidian language spoken by the Kandha tribe in Odisha.

9. Consider the following pairs:

1. Chaliha Sahib Festival – Sindhis
2. Nanda Raj Jaat Yatra – Gonds
3. Wari-Warkari – Santhals

Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched? [UPSC CSE Pre 2017]
 (a) 1 only
 (b) 2 and 3 only
 (c) 1 and 3 only
 (d) None of the above

Solution: (a)
 Exp) Pair 1 is correctly matched: Chaliha Sahib is a religious and cultural festival celebrated by the Sindhi community to worship Jhulelal.
 Pair 2 is incorrectly matched: Nanda Raj Jaat Yatra is a pilgrimage celebrated in Uttarakhand, not by the Gonds.
 Pair 3 is incorrectly matched: Wari-Warkari is related to the Warkari sect, not the Santhals.

10. Banjaras during the medieval period of Indian history were generally: [UPSC CSE Pre 2016]
(a) Agriculturists
(b) Warriors
 (c) Weavers
 (d) Traders

Solution: (d)
 Exp) The Banjaras were traditionally a nomadic trading community known for transporting goods across the Indian subcontinent. They played a crucial role in medieval India's supply chain, especially for grains and salt. They were also known as Lambadas, Lambanis, or Gwaris in different regions of India.

11. With reference to the cultural history of medieval India, consider the following statements:

1. Siddhas (Sittars) of the Tamil region were monotheistic and condemned idolatry.
2. Lingayats of the Kannada region questioned the theory of rebirth and rejected the caste hierarchy.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct? [UPSC CSE Pre 2016]
 (a) 1 only
 (b) 2 only
 (c) Both 1 and 2
 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

Solution: (c)
 Exp) Statement 1 is correct: The Siddhas (Sittars) of Tamil Nadu were monotheistic and strongly opposed idol worship. They focused on yoga, meditation, and mysticism rather than ritualistic worship.
 Statement 2 is correct: The Lingayat movement, led by Basavanna, rejected caste hierarchies and the concept of rebirth. They believed in a direct relationship with Lord Shiva (Ishtalinga worship).

12. With reference to the cultural history of India, the memorizing of chronicles, dynastic histories, and epic tales was the profession of which of the following? [UPSC CSE Pre 2016]
(a) Shramana
(b) Parivraajaka
 (c) Agrahaarika
 (d) Maagadha

Solution: (d)
 Exp) The Maagadhas were professional bards and chroniclers in ancient and medieval India. They memorized and recited dynastic histories, epic tales, and heroic legends. They were often associated with royal courts.

• Shramana: Ascetics following Buddhism or Jainism.
• Parivraajaka: Wandering renunciates.
• Agrahaarika: Priests managing land grants (agrahara lands).

13. Chaitra of the national calendar based on the Saka Era corresponds to which one of the following dates of the Gregorian calendar in a normal year of 365 days? [UPSC CSE Pre 2014]
(a) 22nd March (or 21st March)
(b) 15th May (or 16th May)
 (c) 31st March (or 30th March)
 (d) 21st April (or 20th April)

Solution: (a)
 Exp) Chaitra is the first month of the Indian National Calendar (Saka Calendar). It starts on March 22 in normal years and on March 21 in leap years.
 The Saka Calendar was officially adopted by the Government of India on 22 March 1957 for official purposes alongside the Gregorian calendar.

14. The national motto of India, 'Satyameva Jayate', inscribed below the Emblem of India, is taken from: [UPSC CSE Pre 2014]
(a) Katha Upanishad
(b) Chandogya Upanishad
 (c) Aitareya Upanishad
 (d) Mundaka Upanishad

Solution: (d)
 Exp) The phrase Satyameva Jayate (सत्यमेव जयते, meaning "Truth Alone Triumphs") is taken from the Mundaka Upanishad (Part 3, Chapter 1, Verse 6). It was adopted as the national motto of India and is inscribed below the Lion Capital of Ashoka.

15. With reference to Buddhist history, tradition, and culture in India, consider the following pairs:

1. Tabo Monastery and Temple Complex – Spiti Valley
2. Lhotsava Lhakhang Temple – Zanskar Valley
3. Alchi Temple Complex – Ladakh

Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched? [UPSC CSE Pre 2014]
 (a) 1 only
 (b) 2 and 3 only
 (c) 1 and 3 only
 (d) 1, 2 and 3

Solution: (c)
 Exp) Pair 1 is correctly matched: Tabo Monastery is located in Spiti Valley, Himachal Pradesh. It was founded in 996 CE by Rinchen Zangpo and is one of the oldest functioning monasteries in India.
 Pair 2 is incorrectly matched: Lhotsava Lhakhang is located in Nako (Himachal Pradesh), not Zanskar Valley (Ladakh).
 Pair 3 is correctly matched: Alchi Monastery is situated in Ladakh and is famous for its wall paintings and Buddhist artwork from the 10th–11th century.

16. With reference to India's culture and tradition, what is 'Kalaripayattu'? [UPSC CSE Pre 2014]
(a) It is an ancient Bhakti cult of Shaivism still prevalent in some parts of South India.
(b) It is an ancient style of bronze and brasswork still found in the southern part of the Coromandel area.
 (c) It is an ancient form of dance-drama and a living tradition in the northern part of Malabar.
 (d) It is an ancient martial art and a living tradition in some parts of South India.

Solution: (d)
 Exp) Kalaripayattu is an ancient martial art that originated in Kerala and is considered one of the oldest surviving martial arts in the world. It includes strikes, kicks, grappling, weaponry, and healing techniques.

• The word Kalari means battlefield.
• It is mentioned in the Vadakkan Pattukal, a collection of ballads about the Chekavars (warriors) of Kerala.