UPSC CSE MAINS 2025 GS 3 MODEL ANSWERS

Q1. Distinguish between the Human Development Index (HDI) and the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index (IHDI) with special reference to India. Why is the IHDI considered a better indicator of inclusive growth?  10 (Answer in 150 words)

Approach ●       Introduction: Define the Human Development Index (HDI) and the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index (IHDI). ●       Body: Detail the difference between the two indices with specific data for India. Explain why the IHDI is a more effective measure of inclusive growth by highlighting its ability to reveal disparities and guide policy. ●       Conclusion: Summarize the importance of using IHDI to gain a more accurate understanding of equitable development in a diverse country like India.

Introduction

The Human Development Index (HDI) and the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index (IHDI) are both published by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) to measure human progress. However, they tell different stories. While the HDI presents a picture of a country's potential human development based on national averages, the IHDI reveals the actual level of human development by accounting for inequality. 

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Distinction between the Human Development Index (HDI) and the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index (IHDI) 

	Human Development Index (HDI)	Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index (IHDI)
Core Concept	Measures the average achievements of a country in health, education, and income.	Adjusts the HDI score downwards to reflect inequalities in the distribution of health, education, and income.
What it Represents	Represents the potential level of human development if there were no inequality.	Represents the actual level of human development, accounting for existing disparities.
Methodology	Calculated as a geometric mean of normalized indices for the three dimensions.	Discounts the average value of each dimension according to its level of inequality, using the Atkinson inequality measure.
Interpretation	Provides a broad overview of national progress but can mask significant internal disparities between different population groups.	The difference between the HDI and IHDI represents the "loss" in human development due to inequality.
Reference to India (2025 report)	India's HDI value was 0.685, placing it in the "medium human development" category with a rank of 130 out of 193 countries.	India's IHDI value was 0.475, indicating a loss of 30.7% in potential human development due to inequality.

Why is IHDI a Better Indicator of Inclusive Growth?

• It Exposes Misleading Averages: A high HDI can be sustained by strong performance among a small, wealthy, and educated elite, masking the deprivations faced by the majority. The IHDI’s methodology directly penalizes these disparities. For a vast and diverse country like India, with regional and socio-economic gaps, the IHDI offers a far more honest picture of the average citizen’s reality.
• It Directs Targeted Policy Action: By showing which dimension is most affected by inequality, the IHDI guides resource allocation. For example, if the greatest loss is in the education component, it signals the need for targeted investment in quality public schooling, thereby addressing structural barriers to equality.
• It aligns with the Core Principle of Development: True development is not just about raising national income; it is about expanding the capabilities and choices of all By showing how inequality limits these capabilities for a portion of the population, the IHDI aligns more closely with this human-centric vision of progress. 

Conclusion

While the HDI is a valuable tool that successfully shifted the global focus beyond GDP, it only provides a partial view. The IHDI offers the necessary course correction by placing inequality at the heart of the development discourse. For a country like India, which is aiming for 'Sabka Saath, Sabka Vikas', the IHDI serves as a constant and critical reminder that the true measure of a nation's success is not its average achievement, but how widely that achievement is shared among its people.

 Q2. What are the challenges before the Indian economy when the world is moving away from free trade and multilateralism to protectionism and bilateralism? How can these challenges be met?  10 (Answer in 150 words)  

Approach ●       Introduction: Discuss the global shift from multilateral free trade to a more protectionist, bilateral world order. ●       Body: Analyze the primary challenges this new environment poses to the Indian economy, supported by specific data and reports. Discuss the multi-pronged strategy India can adopt to navigate these challenges effectively. ●       Conclusion: Conclude by summarizing the need for a dual approach of building domestic resilience while engaging proactively with the world.

Introduction

Countries worldwide now favor protectionism and bilateral deals over free trade and global rules. Free trade cuts barriers and sets shared standards to boost cooperation, but protectionism uses tariffs and blocks to protect local jobs. Bilateralism means one-on-one deals that often suit stronger nations. This change hits India hard. In August 2025, U.S. President Trump added a 25% tariff on Indian goods—linked to India's Russian oil buys—pushing total tariffs to 50%. Experts predict a drop in U.S.-bound shipments could slash GDP growth by 0.3-0.5%. 

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Challenges Before the Indian Economy

Reduced Market Access and New Trade Barriers

• Tariff and Non-Tariff Barriers: Countries are imposing tariffs and complex regulations, often under the cover of environmental or labor standards, to restrict imports. For example, the EU’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM), fully effective in 2026, will raise costs on India’s carbon-intensive exports like steel, aluminum, and cement.
• Impact on Exports: With exports contributing over 21% of GDP, restricted access to key markets like the US and EU could slow growth in labor-intensive sectors such as textiles, engineering goods, and leather, reducing job opportunities. 

Disruption of Global Value Chains (GVCs)

• Import Dependency: India relies heavily on China for critical imports like electronic components, and solar cells. Geopolitical tensions can abruptly halt these supplies, disrupting domestic manufacturing.
• Rising Input Costs: Shifting supply chains from efficient hubs increases raw material and intermediate goods costs, driving inflation and reducing product competitiveness.

Weakening of Multilateral Institutions

• The WTO’s Appellate Body is non-functional due to blocked appointments, leaving India without a binding mechanism to challenge unfair tariffs or barriers and forcing reliance on less effective bilateral negotiations.

Geopolitical Pressure in Bilateral Deals

• Powerful economies like the US and EU are linking trade with non-trade issues. Frameworks such as the Indo-Pacific Economic Framework for Prosperity (IPEF) push commitments on digital trade, labor, and environmental standards, forcing India to choose between accepting tough terms or risking exclusion from key trade blocs.

How India Can Meet These Challenges?

Strengthening Domestic Demand and Manufacturing (Atmanirbhar Bharat)

With a population of over 1.4 billion, the domestic market is a greatest strategic asset. Production Linked Incentive (PLI) Schemes, a core component of the Atmanirbhar Bharat initiative, incentivize domestic manufacturing across 14 key sectors to boost domestic manufacturing, attract investment, and reduce import dependence. 

Proactive Bilateralism and Strategic Free Trade Agreements (FTAs)

India has concluded FTAs with the UAE, Australia, UK, and is in the final stage of negotiation for FTAs with the European Union (EU), to secure preferential access to the major markets. 

Diversifying Trade and Attracting Supply Chains (The "China Plus One" Strategy)

• Improving Ease of Doing Business: Government must continue to focus on simplifying regulations, improving infrastructure through initiatives like the PM Gati Shakti National Master Plan, and ensuring policy stability to attract foreign direct investment (FDI) from companies looking to diversify their supply chains.
• Diversifying Import Sources: India must also reduce its own vulnerabilities by diversifying its import sources for critical goods, looking towards partners like Vietnam, Taiwan, and Mexico for electronics, and strengthening partnerships with countries like Australia and Argentina for critical minerals like lithium and cobalt. 

Leading the Global South

India showcased its diplomatic strength during its 2023 G20 Presidency by securing the African Union’s permanent membership. It must leverage platforms like the G20, BRICS, and the UN to push for WTO reforms, strengthen global financial institutions, advocate for fair trade rules, promote sustainable development, and ensure that global economic governance reflects 21st-century realities. 

Conclusion

The global shift to protectionism challenges India’s exports and supply chains, but it is manageable. By strengthening economy through Atmanirbhar Bharat, pursuing proactive bilateral agreements, and leading the Global South, India can transform global disruption into opportunity, emerging resilient, self-reliant, and a stronger economic power in the coming decade.

Q3. Explain the factors influencing the decision of the farmers on the selection of high value crops in India.  10 (Answer in 150 words)

Approach ●       Introduction: Define High-Value Crops (HVCs) and their significance in modernizing Indian agriculture. ●       Body: Categorize and explain the key factors influencing a farmer's decision, covering economic, infrastructural, policy, and environmental dimensions. Integrate specific government initiatives, data, and examples within each category. ●       Conclusion: Summarize how these factors interplay and emphasize the need for a supportive ecosystem to boost farmers' incomes and ensure sustainable growth.

Introduction

High-Value Crops (HVCs) refer to non-staple agricultural crops, such as fruits, vegetables, flowers, spices, and medicinal plants, that offer significantly higher net returns per unit of land and resources compared to traditional food grains like wheat and rice.

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Key Factors Influencing the Selection of High-Value Crops 

Economic and Market Factors

• High Profitability and Market Demand: HVCs offer higher returns per hectare compared to staple food grains. This is fueled by rising urban incomes, changing dietary habits toward fruits and exotic vegetables, and a growing food processing industry. For example, during FY 2024–25, India's export of fruits and vegetables reached $ 3.87 billion
• Price Volatility and Risk: Unlike crops like wheat and paddy that have a safety net of Minimum Support Price (MSP), HVCs are subject to extreme price volatility. A bumper harvest can lead to a market glut and a price crash, as seen with tomatoes and onions.
• Access to Capital: Cultivating HVCs requires high upfront investment in quality seeds, advanced irrigation (like drip systems), and plant protection. Access to timely and affordable credit through the Kisan Credit Card (KCC) is a critical enabler. 

Infrastructural and Technological Factors

• Assured Irrigation: Most HVCs cannot depend solely on monsoons. Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY), with its focus on "Per Drop, More Crop" through micro-irrigation, supports farmers diversifying into HVCs.
• Post-Harvest Infrastructure: HVCs are highly perishable. A robust cold chain—including cold storage and refrigerated transport—is essential to prevent spoilage and ensure better prices. A farmer will only risk growing perishable crops if confident they can be stored and transported safely.
• Access to Technology and Knowledge: Farmers need specialized knowledge for HVCs. Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs) and agricultural universities provide technical know-how, while improved crop varieties (e.g., in cowpea and okra) and digital procurement apps enhance productivity and market access. 

Government Policy and Support

• Promotional Schemes: The Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH) is a centrally sponsored scheme that provides subsidies from planting material to setting up cold storage units. Schemes like PM-KISAN, which provide direct income support, can also help de-risk a farmer's decision to experiment with new crops.
• Market Linkages and FPOs: Small and marginal farmers, who constitute over 86% of all farmers in India, struggle to access large markets individually. Government's promotion of 10,000 Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs) helps farmers aggregate their produce, gain bargaining power, and reduce the risks of price volatility. Platforms like e-NAM (National Agriculture Market) aim to improve price discovery.
• MSP Safety Net (A Counter-Factor): Assured procurement and MSP for paddy and wheat in states like Punjab and Haryana create a powerful disincentive for farmers to diversify into riskier HVCs, even though HVCs could offer higher returns and be more sustainable. 

Agro-Climatic and Social Factors

• Soil and Climate Suitability: Unique agro-climatic conditions of different regions naturally favor specific HVCs. For example, the cool climate of Himachal Pradesh is ideal for apples, while the coastal climate of Kerala is perfect for spices like cardamom and pepper.
• Climate Resilience: Growing water scarcity and climate risks are pushing farmers towards less water-intensive, more resilient HVCs and traditional grains like millets. 

Conclusion

Indian farmers choose high-value crops by weighing income opportunities against risks. Reliable irrigation, strong post-harvest infrastructure, access to credit and knowledge, and supportive government policies enable this choice. Strengthening these factors empowers farmers, raises incomes, and promotes a sustainable, diversified agriculture. 

Q4. Elaborate the scope and significance of supply chain management of agricultural commodities in India.  10 (Answer in 150 words)

Approach ●       Introduction: Define agricultural Supply Chain Management (SCM) and state its core purpose. ●       Body: Detail the key stages of the agricultural supply chain in India, integrating relevant government initiatives to show how they are expanding this scope. ●       Conclusion: Briefly summarize the challenges and provide a concise, forward-looking vision.

Introduction

Supply Chain Management (SCM) in agriculture is the entire "farm-to-fork" journey of moving produce from harvesting to the final consumer. For India, where more than 46% of the population engaged in agriculture and allied activities, effective SCM is critical to tackle paradoxical challenge: being a top global producer while facing post-harvest losses estimated at over ₹1.5 lakh crore annually, according to data revealed by the Union ministry of food processing industries (MoFPI). A modern supply chain is the key to reducing this wastage, ensuring food security, and boosting the farm economy. 

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The Scope of Agricultural SCM in India

Production and Aggregation: Supply chain starts at the farm gate, where produce from millions of small farmers is aggregated to achieve scale. Government is promoting 10,000 Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs) to help farmers pool resources, combine produce, and strengthen bargaining power with buyers, forming the foundation of an organized supply chain. 

Logistics and Cold Chain Infrastructure: India loses an estimated ₹92,651 crore annually due to a fragmented cold chain (Ministry of Food Processing Industries). Government tackles this through the Pradhan Mantri Kisan Sampada Yojana (PMKSY), funding mega food parks, cold chains, and integrated storage to better manage high-value, perishable produce. 

Processing and Value Addition: Food processing adds value by turning raw agricultural produce into longer-lasting, marketable products, generating higher revenue. Despite its potential, only 10% of India’s farm produce is processed. The Pradhan Mantri Formalisation of Micro food processing Enterprises (PMFME) scheme supports 2 lakh micro-enterprises with credit-linked subsidies, formalizing small players, boosting rural employment, and increasing value addition. 

Market Linkages and Digital Integration:  The e-NAM platform links over 1,300 mandis and 1.75 crore farmers to a wider pool of buyers, breaking inter-state trade barriers and improving price discovery. Emerging technologies like AI, blockchain, and IoT are transforming supply chain management through better demand forecasting, traceability, and smart logistics. 

Significance of an Efficient Agricultural SCM

Economic Engine

• Doubling Farmers’ Income: Efficient supply chains cut intermediaries and post-harvest losses, raising farmers’ share of the final price by 20–30% (NITI Aayog).
• Boosting Exports: Meeting global quality and safety standards through robust supply chains has driven India’s agricultural exports past $50 billion (APEDA, 2024).
• Job Creation: Supply chain management generates employment in logistics, warehousing, food processing, packaging, and retail. 

Pillar of Social Stability

• Ensure Food Security: Efficient supply chains deliver food grains from surplus to deficit regions, supporting the Public Distribution System (PDS) and national food security.
• Control Food Inflation: By reducing wastage and maintaining steady supplies of essentials like onions and tomatoes, supply chains stabilize prices.
• Improve Nutrition: Wider availability of fresh fruits and vegetables enhances the population’s nutritional security. 

Strategic National Priority

• Reducing Agricultural Wastage: Modern supply chains curb India’s massive post-harvest losses, conserving national resources.
• Achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): Efficient supply chains advance SDG 2 (Zero Hunger) and SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production). 

Conclusion

India is transforming the agricultural supply chain from a fragmented system into an integrated, technology-driven network, boosting farmer incomes, food security, and economic growth. By strengthening infrastructure, adopting digital platforms, and implementing supportive policies, India can overcome challenges and emerge as a global leader in food processing and agricultural trade.

Q5. The fusion energy programme in India has steadily evolved over the past few decades. Mention India's contributions to the international fusion energy project – International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER). What will be the implications of the success of this project for the future of global energy?  10 (Answer in 150 words)  

Approach ●     Introduction: Briefly explain fusion energy and India's long-standing domestic program. ●     Body: Detail India's specific contributions to the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) project. Analyze the implications of ITER's success for the future of global energy. ●     Conclusion: Summarize the significance of India's participation.

Introduction

Nuclear fusion is the process that powers the sun, where light atomic nuclei are fused together to release immense amounts of clean energy. For decades, India has pursued fusion research as a long-term solution to its energy needs, developing its own experimental reactors, or tokamaks, like ADITYA and the more advanced SST-1 (Steady State Superconducting Tokamak). This domestic expertise paved the way for India to join the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER). 

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ITER is a global nuclear fusion project in France, aiming to prove fusion as a large-scale, carbon-free energy source. Seven members—the EU, China, India, Japan, Russia, South Korea, and the US—collaborate on it. As a full member, India contributes about 9% of the project's cost, primarily through "in-kind" contributions of critical, high-tech components managed by ITER-India, the project's nodal agency. 

India's key contributions include:

• Cryostat: India built the world’s largest high-vacuum chamber, a 30-meter-tall, 30-meter-diameter stainless-steel “refrigerator” surrounding the tokamak. It maintains the vacuum and ultra-cold environment (-269°C) required for superconducting magnets.
• Shielding Blocks: Manufactures massive boron-steel blocks that absorb heat and high-energy neutrons, protecting the reactor’s components.
• Cooling Water Systems: Designs and supplies piping systems to circulate water and manage the extreme heat generated by fusion reactions.
• Cryogenic Systems: Provides components to cool superconducting magnets, enabling them to confine the super-hot plasma.
• Heating Systems: Supplies parts for the Ion Cyclotron Resonance Heating system, raising plasma temperature to 150 million°C to initiate fusion.
• Diagnostic Systems: Develops instruments that monitor plasma temperature, density, and behavior, crucial for controlling the reaction.
• Superconducting Magnets & Vacuum Vessel: India produces Toroidal Field Coils and contributes to the vacuum vessel construction, essential for plasma confinement.
• Human Resources: Indian scientists and engineers design, test, and collaborate on ITER components, plasma physics, and materials research.

Implications of ITER's Success for Global Energy

• Abundant Fuel: Fusion uses deuterium from seawater and tritium from lithium, providing energy for millions of years.
• Zero Carbon Emissions: Fusion produces no greenhouse gases, helping achieve global net-zero targets.
• Fuel for All: Fusion fuel is widely available, reducing dependence on concentrated fossil fuels.
• Reduced Conflict: Energy independence would diminish geopolitical tensions and weaken energy cartels.
• No Meltdown Risk: Fusion reactions stop instantly if disrupted, unlike fission, preventing catastrophic accidents.
• Minimal Radioactive Waste: Fusion produces negligible long-lived radioactive waste; most activated materials decay within decades. Helium, an inert gas, is the primary byproduct.
• Reliable and Constant Power: Fusion provides 24/7 baseload electricity, unlike intermittent renewables, stabilizing modern power grids.
• Model for Global Collaboration: ITER demonstrates that nations can cooperate peacefully to tackle humanity’s biggest challenges. 

Conclusion

India’s progress in domestic fusion research positions it as a key global partner in developing fusion energy. By contributing to ITER, India helps create technology for clean, safe, and virtually limitless energy, strengthening its role as a global leader in science and technology. 

Q6. How can India achieve energy independence through clean technology by 2047? How can biotechnology can play a crucial role in this endeavour ? 10 (Answer in 150 words)  

Approach ●       Introduction: Define India's goal of energy independence by 2047 and frame it as a strategic necessity to reduce import dependence. ●       Body: Outline the multi-pronged national strategy for achieving this goal through large-scale clean technologies. Detail the specific, crucial role that biotechnology can play in this mission, especially in the transport and rural energy sectors. ●       Conclusion: Summarize the synergistic approach required and provide a forward-looking statement.

Introduction

For India, achieving energy independence by 2047 is a critical national goal, to reduce reliance on imported fossil fuels, which currently poses significant economic and strategic risks. India imports over 87% of crude oil and 50% of natural gas requirements, making the economy vulnerable to global price shocks and geopolitical instability. The only viable path to achieving this goal is through adoption of clean technologies, where biotechnology plays a crucial role.

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Clean Technology Roadmap to 2047

• Solar and Wind Power: India aims to generate most of its electricity from clean sources, targeting 500 GW of non-fossil fuel capacity by 2030 (“Panchamrit” commitment). The National Solar Mission drives large-scale solar parks, while PM-KUSUM enables farmers to install solar pumps and power plants, turning them into energy producers (“urjadaata”).
• Expanding Nuclear Power: As a source of clean, 24/7 baseload power, nuclear energy is a critical component. India is working to triple its nuclear power capacity from around 7 GW to 22 GW by 2031.
• Green Hydrogen: India leverages abundant renewable energy to produce green hydrogen for hard-to-electrify sectors like steel, cement, and heavy transport. The National Green Hydrogen Mission, with ₹19,000 crore investment, targets 5 MMT production by 2030.
• Electric Mobility: The FAME (Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Electric Vehicles) scheme accelerates EV adoption in two-wheelers, public transport, and private vehicles.
• Energy Storage: India invests in Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESS) and Pumped Hydro Storage to manage renewable intermittency.

Role of Biotechnology in Achieving Energy Independence

Replacing Petrol and Diesel

• Ethanol Blending: India’s Ethanol Blending Programme (EBP) has already reached 15% blending and aims for 20% (E20) by 2025, using sugarcane, maize, and agricultural waste.
• Biodiesel: Produced from non-edible oils and used cooking oil under the National Biofuel Policy.
• Compressed Bio-Gas (CBG): The SATAT initiative converts agricultural residue, cattle dung, and municipal waste into CBG for vehicles, reducing reliance on imported CNG and petrol.

Waste-to-Energy: Solving Energy and Pollution Challenges

• Anaerobic Digestion: Microbes convert urban waste, agricultural residue, and wastewater into biogas/biomethane.This addresses stubble burning, urban waste management, and air pollution while producing clean fuel and organic fertilizer.

Bio-Refineries and Advanced Bioenergy

• Integrated Bio-Refineries: Convert biomass into biofuels, bio-plastics, and green chemicals, creating a circular bio-economy.
• Algal and 2G/3G Biofuels: Use algae and agricultural waste to produce high-yield, sustainable fuels.
• Genetically Engineered Energy Crops: Grow faster, water-efficient crops with higher energy content for biofuel production.

Rural Empowerment and Economic Impact

• Bioenergy projects generate rural employment, additional income for farmers, and promote sustainable practices. India’s bioeconomy grew from $10 billion to $165.75 billion by 2024, targeting $300 billion by 2030 under the BioE3 initiative. 

Conclusion

To achieve energy independence by 2047, India must aggressively deploy clean technologies—solar, wind, and green hydrogen—while using biotechnology to convert agricultural waste into biofuels and biogas. This will cut imports, reduce pollution, boost rural incomes, and create a circular economy, driving India toward a self-reliant, energy-secure future.

Q7. What is Carbon Capture, Utilization and Storage (CCUS)? What is the potential role of CCUS in tackling climate change?  10 (Answer in 150 words)

Approach ●       Introduction: Define Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (CCUS) and its fundamental goal. ●       Body: Clearly explain the three distinct components of the CCUS process. Analyze the potential roles of CCUS in a global climate strategy, using data and examples. ●       Conclusion: Summarize why CCUS is considered  for achieving net-zero emissions.

Introduction

Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (CCUS) traps CO₂ emissions at their source, preventing them from entering the atmosphere, and helps decarbonize heavy industries while supporting the transition to a net-zero energy system.

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CUS is a three-step process designed to manage carbon emissions:

• Capture: The first step involves separating CO2 from other gases produced by large industrial facilities, such as coal and natural gas power plants, steel mills, and cement plants. The most common methods involve using chemical solvents to absorb the CO2 from the flue gas. A newer, more advanced form is Direct Air Capture (DAC), which uses large fans and chemical processes to pull CO2 directly out of the ambient air.
• Utilization: The captured CO2 can be repurposed as a valuable input for various commercial products. This creates an economic incentive for carbon capture. Common uses include:
  • Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR): Injecting CO2 into aging oil fields to increase petroleum output.
  • Building Materials: Using CO2 to cure concrete, permanently locking it away in construction materials.
  • Synthetic Fuels: Combining CO2 with hydrogen to produce low-carbon fuels (e-fuels).
  • Other Uses: Manufacturing chemicals, plastics, and carbonating beverages.
• Storage (or Sequestration): For permanent removal, the captured CO2 is compressed into a liquid-like state and transported via pipelines or ships to a storage site. It is then injected deep underground into carefully selected geological formations, such as depleted oil and gas reservoirs or saline aquifers, where it is permanently trapped. 

Potential Role of CCUS in Tackling Climate Change

• Decarbonizing Hard-to-Abate Industries: CCUS captures process emissions from cement, steel, and chemical production, which cannot be eliminated by renewables alone.
• Providing Low-Carbon Baseload Power: Allows fossil fuel power plants to operate with up to 90% lower emissions, ensuring stable 24/7 energy while integrating intermittent renewables.
• Enabling a Clean Hydrogen Economy: Produces “blue hydrogen” from natural gas by capturing CO2, providing a scalable, lower-cost transition fuel and building infrastructure for future green hydrogen.
• Achieving Net-Negative Emissions: Paired with bioenergy (BECCS) or direct air capture (DAC) removes more CO2 than emitted, supporting global climate targets like limiting warming to 1.5°C.
• Mitigating Industrial Emissions: Reduces emissions in industries without requiring full technology shifts or alternative fuels.
• Decarbonizing Energy Systems: Enables continued use of fossil fuels in hard-to-electrify sectors while cutting emissions, especially in gas-fired power plants.
• Supporting Net-Zero Goals: Offsets emissions from sectors difficult or costly to decarbonize, including aviation, shipping, and cement, helping achieve global net-zero targets.
• Creating Economic Opportunities: Drives innovation in carbon utilization (synthetic fuels, chemicals, materials) and builds infrastructure, generating jobs and investment. 

Challenges to CCUS Effectiveness

• High Cost: CCUS requires expensive capture, transport, and storage infrastructure, making its viability dependent on carbon pricing, subsidies, and CO2-derived product markets.
• Site Selection and Regulation: Success depends on identifying suitable storage sites and ensuring long-term monitoring and regulatory compliance.
• Public Safety: Communities often worry about leakage, contamination, and other environmental hazards. 

Way Forward

• Invest in CCUS via climate finance, carbon credits, and public-private partnerships. Push for government incentives, funding programs, and stable regulations to reduce investment risk.
• Advance R&D in hard-to-abate sectors like cement, steel, and chemicals for scalable solutions. Develop CO2 transport and storage infrastructure through coordinated stakeholder efforts.
• Collaborate internationally to share knowledge, adopt best practices, and access global markets. 

Conclusion

CCUS complements, rather than replaces, renewable energy. Despite high costs and policy challenges, it decarbonizes heavy industry, supports low-carbon power, advances the hydrogen economy, and helps achieve net-negative emissions. CCUS is a critical, active tool for building a sustainable, net-zero future.

Q8. Seawater intrusion in the coastal aquifers is a major concern in India. What are the causes of seawater intrusion and the remedial measures to combat this hazard? 10 (Answer in 150 words)  

Approach ●       Introduction: Define seawater intrusion and explain why it is a critical hazard for India's coastal regions. ●       Body: Detail the primary causes of seawater intrusion, distinguishing between human-induced pressures and natural aggravating factors. Outline a comprehensive set of remedial measures, categorized into managing extraction, augmenting recharge, and creating physical barriers. ●       Conclusion: Summarize the need for an integrated and community-driven approach to manage this growing environmental challenge.

Introduction

Seawater intrusion is the movement of saline water from the sea into freshwater aquifers, which are underground layers of water-bearing rock. For India, with a long 7,500-kilometer coastline and high population density in coastal areas, this is a major environmental and economic concern. It contaminates fresh groundwater sources, making them unfit for drinking and irrigation, threatening the livelihoods and health of millions.

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Causes of Seawater Intrusion

Human-Induced Causes:

• Groundwater Over-Extraction: Excessive pumping lowers the water table, allowing seawater to move inland. Common in:
  • Agriculture: Water-intensive crops in coastal regions.
  • Urban & Industrial Use: Coastal cities like Chennai and nearby industries depend heavily on groundwater.
  • Vulnerable Areas: Saurashtra coast (Gujarat) and Minjur aquifer (Tamil Nadu) face severe intrusion.
• Reduced Aquifer Recharge: Urbanization blocks rainwater percolation, limiting natural recharge.
• Coastal Modifications: Dredging channels for ports and harbors creates pathways for seawater intrusion. 

Natural Factors:

• Climate Change & Sea-Level Rise: Rising seas push the saltwater front further inland, increasing pressure on aquifers.
• Natural Disasters: Cyclones and tsunamis can flood freshwater sources with seawater.

Remedial Measures to Combat this Hazard

Demand-Side Management (Reducing Over-Extraction)

• Regulate Groundwater Extraction: The Central Ground Water Authority (CGWA) must strictly control new borewell drilling and enforce extraction limits for agriculture and industry.
• Promote Water-Efficient Agriculture: Implement Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY) “Per Drop, More Crop” to expand drip and sprinkler irrigation, reducing water use by 30–50%. Encourage farmers to switch from water-intensive crops like paddy and sugarcane to millets and pulses.
• Urban Water Efficiency: Mandate water metering, recycle wastewater for non-potable uses, and run public awareness campaigns.
• Alternative Water Sources: Develop desalination plants, surface water reservoirs, and wastewater recycling to reduce pressure on groundwater. 

Supply-Side Management (Increasing Recharge)

• Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR): Inject treated water and capture monsoon runoff through check dams, percolation tanks, and recharge shafts to restore freshwater pressure.
• Rainwater Harvesting: Enforce rooftop harvesting in urban areas and construct check dams and percolation ponds in rural/coastal regions.
• Subsurface and Hydraulic Barriers: Build underground walls or use injection wells to create freshwater pressure ridges that block seawater intrusion.
• Vegetation & Land Use: Reforest coastal areas and plant mangroves/casuarina trees to restore hydrological balance and act as natural barriers.
• Community Engagement: Educate and involve local communities in sustainable water use and recharge projects.
• Monitoring & Data Collection: Track groundwater levels, salinity, and extraction rates to detect early seawater intrusion.
• Legal & Policy Frameworks: Strengthen regulations to limit over-extraction, incentivize conservation, and support alternative water sources. 

Conclusion

Seawater intrusion in India, worsened by climate change, is a man-made crisis. India must adopt an Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) approach, shifting from supply-focused policies to sustainable demand management. By conserving and recharging water, enforcing strict regulations, and empowering local communities, India can safeguard its critical coastal freshwater resources.

Q9. Terrorism is a global scourge. How has it manifested in India? Elaborate with contemporary examples. What are the counter measures adopted by the State? Explain. 10 (Answer in 150 words)  

Approach ●       Introduction: Define terrorism as a global scourge and frame its multi-faceted nature in the Indian context. ●       Body: Elaborate on the different manifestations of terrorism in India with specific, contemporary examples. Detail the comprehensive, multi-pronged counter-terrorism strategy adopted by the Indian state. ●       Conclusion: Summarize the dynamic nature of the threat and the need for a continuously evolving response.

Introduction

Terrorism is a global plague that threatens international peace, security, and development. Over the decades, India has faced a dynamic and multi-pronged terror threat, challenging its internal security and sovereignty.

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Manifestations of Terrorism in India

• Cross-Border Terrorism (Jammu & Kashmir): Pakistan-based groups like Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT) and Jaish-e-Mohammed (JeM) infiltrate J&K to attack security forces and civilians, aiming to destabilize the region (eg. 2025 Pahalgam attack). Terrorists now use lone-wolf attacks, targeted killings, and drones for smuggling.
• Left-Wing Extremism (Naxalism): CPI-Maoist and affiliated groups target security forces and infrastructure in Central and Eastern India, seeking to overthrow the state. Though their territory has shrunk, they remain capable of high-impact attacks.
• Northeast Insurgencies: Groups like NSCN-K and ULFA pursue autonomy or secession, attacking civilians and security forces. Peace accords have reduced violence, but ethnic tensions can revive insurgency.
• Radicalization: Online propaganda by ISIS, Al-Qaeda, and other groups inspires lone-wolf attacks and recruitment.
• Religious & Sectarian Violence: Radicalized religious groups attack minorities or authorities, sometimes triggering communal riots.
• Cyberterrorism: Terrorists target critical infrastructure, steal data, and spread propaganda online.
• Urban/City-Centered Terrorism: Sleeper cells carry out attacks in major cities to create fear and disrupt the economy.

 Counter-Measures Adopted by the State

Strengthening Security and Intelligence

• Created the National Investigation Agency (NIA) to investigate terror cases nationwide.
• Established the National Intelligence Grid (NATGRID) to integrate real-time intelligence from multiple agencies.
• Operationalized the Multi-Agency Centre (MAC) for daily intelligence sharing between central and state forces. 

Proactive Security Operations

• Conducts intelligence-driven counter-terrorism operations in Jammu & Kashmir and LWE-affected areas.
• Implements border management with smart fencing, sensors, and drones.
• Demonstrated deterrence via surgical strikes (2016) and Balakot airstrike (2019). 

Robust Legal Framework

• Amended Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA) to designate individuals as terrorists.
• Empowered NIA and local agencies with extended investigation timelines and jurisdiction nationwide.
• Strengthened laws under the Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA). 

Choking Terror Financing

• NIA’s Terror Funding and Fake Currency Cell and Enforcement Directorate (ED) track and block terror funds.
• Uses diplomatic pressure via the Financial Action Task Force (FATF) on countries sponsoring terrorism. 

Counter-Radicalization and Developmental Measures

• Engages youth through education, skill development, and employment programs in sensitive regions.
• Fast-tracks infrastructure projects, schools, and healthcare in Jammu & Kashmir and LWE areas.
• Implements community policing and de-radicalization programs to prevent extremism. 

Cybersecurity and Technology Integration

• Monitors online radicalization and terror networks via advanced cyber intelligence tools.
• Uses AI and data analytics to detect suspicious activities and financial transactions. 

Conclusion

Terrorism in India is complex and constantly evolving. Alongside cross-border threats and LWE, online radicalization has emerged as a new danger. India combats this through strong laws, dedicated agencies, proactive operations, and international diplomacy. To stay ahead, India must continually adapt strategies, enhance technology, and strengthen federal coordination.

Q10. The Government of India recently stated that Left Wing Extremism (LWE) will be eliminated by 2026. What do you understand by LWE and how are the people affected by it?

What measures have been taken by the government to eliminate LWE? 10 (Answer in 150 words)  

Approach ●       Introduction: Start with the government's goal of eliminating Left Wing Extremism (LWE) by 2026. ●       Body: Explain what LWE is, its ideology, and its operational methods. Detail the profound and devastating impact of LWE on the civilian population and the region's development. Outline the government's comprehensive, and strategy to counter LWE. ●       Conclusion: Summarize the success achieved so far and emphasize the need for a continued, integrated approach to meet the 2026 target.

Introduction

The Government of India has set an ambitious target to eliminate Left Wing Extremism (LWE), also known as Naxalism, from the country by 2026. LWE is an armed insurgency rooted in a violent ideology that rejects parliamentary democracy.

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What is Left Wing Extremism?

Left Wing Extremism is a violent movement led by extremist groups who subscribe to Maoist ideology. Their core belief is that state power can only be captured through a "protracted armed struggle."

• Ideology and Methods: LWE groups reject parliamentary democracy and seek a communist state. They operate from remote forests, using guerrilla tactics like ambushing police, planting Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs), destroying infrastructure, and running parallel administrations called Janatana Sarkars.
• Exploitation of Grievances: They recruit from marginalized communities, especially Adivasis and rural poor, by exploiting poverty, underdevelopment, and displacement.
• Geographical Spread: LWE once dominated the "Red Corridor" across Central and Eastern India. Government action has shrunk their influence, with affected districts dropping from 96 in 2010 to 38 in 2024. 

Impact of LWE on People

• The local population, especially tribal communities, bears the heaviest burden of Left-Wing Extremism (LWE).
• Caught in the Crossfire: Civilians face threats from both Naxals and security forces. Naxals force them for food and shelter, and label many as "police informers," leading to killings in so-called Jan Adalats.
• Forced Recruitment and Extortion: Naxals forcibly recruit youth, including children, into armed squads, and extort taxes from villagers, contractors, and businesses, crippling the local economy.
• Destruction of Development: LWE groups destroy schools, hospitals, roads, and communication towers to block government presence, isolate communities, and perpetuate poverty.
• Human Rights Violations: Naxals conduct brutal Jan Adalats, execute civilians, and recruit children, destroying futures and spreading fear.
• Threat to Security Forces: Security personnel face ambushes and IED attacks, like the April 2023 Dantewada blast that killed 10 District Reserve Guard personnel. 

Government’s Multi-Pronged Strategy to Eliminate LWE

Security-First Approach

• SAMADHAN Doctrine: SAMADHAN stand for: Smart leadership, Aggressive strategy, Motivation and training, Actionable intelligence, Dashboard-based KRAs, Harnessing technology, Theatre-specific action plans, No access to financing
• Elite Forces Deployment: COBRA (Commando Battalion for Resolute Action) conducts intelligence-based jungle operations.
• Police Modernization: State police receive modern weapons, communication equipment, training, and financial support. Over 400 fortified police stations have been built in LWE areas.
• Financial Disruption: Agencies like National Investigation Agency (NIA) and the Enforcement Directorate (ED) track and block funding networks of LWE groups.
• Intelligence & Technology: Satellite surveillance, drones, and AI-enabled monitoring enhance situational awareness.
• Zero-Tolerance Policy: Security-related expenditures (SRE) reimburse state costs for operations, training, and infrastructure.

 Development-First Approach (Winning Hearts and Minds)

• Infrastructure & Connectivity: Built roads, mobile towers, and expanded 4G/telecom coverage to integrate remote regions.
• Financial Inclusion: Opened bank branches and ATMs to enable direct benefit transfers.
• Education & Skill Development: Established Eklavya Model Residential Schools, Skill Development Centers, and ITIs; ROSHNI scheme provides rural youth training.
• Livelihood & Rights: Enforces Forest Rights Act, 2006, secures land and livelihood rights for tribals. Dharti Aaba Janjatiya Gram Utkarsh Abhiyan benefits 1.5 crore people across 15,000 villages.
• Civic Engagement & Awareness: Conducts Civic Action Programs, media campaigns, and Tribal Youth Exchanges to counter Maoist propaganda and build trust.
• Aspirational Districts Program: Focuses on socio-economic uplift in health, education, and local infrastructure. 

Conclusion

The Indian government has effectively countered Left Wing Extremism through strong security measures and accelerated, inclusive development. Violence has fallen, and Naxal influence has declined. The 2026 goal of complete elimination is ambitious yet achievable, as the focus combines neutralizing armed cadres with delivering development and constitutional rights, undermining extremist ideology.

Q11. Explain how the Fiscal Health Index (FHI) can be used as a tool for assessing the fiscal performance of states in India. In what way would it encourage the states to adopt prudent and sustainable fiscal policies ?  15 (Answer in 250 words)  

Approach ●      Introduction: Define the Fiscal Health Index (FHI) and its purpose as a comprehensive diagnostic tool. ●      Body: Explain how the FHI can be used as a tool to assess state finances by breaking down its key components. Analyze the mechanisms through which the FHI would encourage states to adopt prudent and sustainable fiscal policies. ●      Conclusion: Summarize the FHI's role as a vital instrument for promoting cooperative and competitive federalism.

Introduction

The Fiscal Health Index (FHI) initiative by NITI Aayog is a composite index that aims to provide a single, comprehensive score to measure and rank the fiscal performance of states, much like a report card for their financial management.

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Comprehensive Assessment Tool: FHI provides a holistic picture of state finances

• Fiscal Discipline: The FHI assesses a state's ability to maintain balance sheets and minimize reliance on borrowing. It prioritizes indicators like the Fiscal Deficit-to-GSDP Ratio and the Revenue Deficit-to-GSDP Ratio, penalizing states that borrow to fund daily consumption expenses.
• Expenditure Quality: Evaluates the productivity of spending. The FHI assigns higher scores when states allocate a larger portion of their budget to Capital Expenditure (investments in infrastructure and assets) over non-productive Revenue Expenditure (salaries, subsidies, etc.).
• Revenue Mobilization: Index measures fiscal self-reliance. It ranks states based on their ability to generate their own income, primarily through the Own Tax Revenue-to-GSDP Ratio, thus decreasing dependence on discretionary Central transfers.
• Debt Sustainability: Looks at the long-term viability of a state's debt load. Key indicators include the Debt-to-GSDP Ratio (assessing the overall stock of debt) and the Interest Payments-to-Revenue Receipts Ratio (measuring the portion of income spent just servicing old loans).

Driving Prudent and Sustainable Policies

• Promoting Competitive Fiscal Federalism: By publicly ranking states on fiscal performance, the FHI sparks healthy competition. States seek to improve their scores, avoiding the embarrassment of being labeled fiscally weak.
• Links Central Transfers to Performance: The FHI serves as a clear criterion for performance-based grants. The Centre rewards fiscally disciplined states with additional funds, incentivizing low deficits and capital-focused expenditure.
• Enhances Market Credibility & Lowers Borrowing Costs: States with high FHI scores gain market credibility, enabling them to borrow at lower interest rates. This reduces interest expenses and frees resources for development.
• Attracts Private and Foreign Investment: A strong FHI signals fiscal stability, attracting domestic and foreign investors to high-performing states.
• Acts as an Early Warning System: By tracking off-budget borrowings, contingent liabilities, and other risks, the FHI enables timely corrective action by the Centre and RBI.
• Promotes Long-Term Growth: Weighting capital expenditure and debt sustainability encourages states to focus on investments that generate future growth instead of short-term freebies.
• Strengthens Public Accountability: By converting complex fiscal data into a single, transparent metric, the FHI empowers citizens, media, and civil society to hold governments accountable for financial decisions. 

Challenges in FHI Implementation

Implementing the FHI effectively requires overcoming structural and political hurdles that often resist fiscal reform:

• Political Resistance: States often resist public rankings that reveal poor fiscal management or restrict popular but unsustainable schemes.
• Gaming Metrics: States may manipulate accounts—shifting liabilities or delaying payments—to boost scores without real fiscal improvement.
• Inconsistent Data: Varying accounting practices and reporting timelines hinder accurate, comparable FHI assessments.
• Overlooking Regional Needs: Standardized indices ignore unavoidable expenditures in disaster-prone or infrastructure-challenged regions. 

Way Forward: Ensuring FHI's Success

To transform the FHI from a mere report card into a powerful catalyst for change, policymakers must adopt targeted strategies:

• Enforce Independent Data Validation: Require robust external audits to verify state financial data, ensuring the FHI reflects reality and curbs metric-gaming.
• Build Administrative Capacity: Provide technical assistance to help weaker states strengthen finance management, improve tax collection, and enhance budget execution.
• Refine Incentive Design: Offer powerful incentives—like favorable debt restructuring or conditional infrastructure approvals—based on sustained FHI improvement.
• Integrate Qualitative Factors: Include key qualitative aspects, such as institutional quality and pension sustainability, alongside quantitative metrics.
• Implement Index Incrementally: Phase in rankings and incentives, giving states time to adjust and fostering genuine reform over short-term compliance.

 Conclusion

The Fiscal Health Index strengthens India’s fiscal federalism by measuring state financial health, promoting competition, linking incentives to performance, and promoting prudent, sustainable financial practices that boost national economic stability and growth.

Q12. Discuss the rationale of the Production Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme. What are its achievements? In what way can the functioning and outcomes of the scheme be improved?  15 (Answer in 250 words)  

Approach ●       Introduction: Define the Production Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme and its core strategic objective. ●       Body: Explain the key reasons why the government introduced the PLI scheme, addressing the core challenges of manufacturing. Detail the data-backed successes of the scheme so far, highlighting standout sectors. Critically analyze the scheme's limitations and suggest concrete measures for improvement. ●       Conclusion: Summarize the scheme's role as a transformative but evolving policy instrument.

Introduction

The Production Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme drives Atmanirbhar Bharat mission by offering direct financial incentives on incremental sales of goods made in India. It aims to boost domestic manufacturing, attract foreign investment, enhance competitiveness, create jobs, and reduce imports. Covering 14 key sectors, various ministries implement the scheme to strengthen manufacturing, exports, and investments. 

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Strategic Rationale of the PLI Scheme

The PLI scheme was designed to address core structural challenges and seize global opportunities:

• Overcoming Manufacturing Disabilities: The financial cushion (4-6% of incremental sales) directly offsets India’s inherent disadvantages, such as higher logistics, power, and capital costs, making domestic manufacturing globally cost-competitive.
• Attracting Large-Scale Investment: By setting high eligibility thresholds for investment and sales, the scheme attracts anchor firms—both multinational corporations (MNCs) and large domestic players—to build world-class, large-scale production facilities.
• Reducing Critical Import Dependence: The scheme targets strategic sectors (like electronics) where India relies heavily on imports, thereby building domestic capacity and enhancing economic security.
• Capitalizing on Supply Chain Diversification: The PLI acts as a powerful magnet to attract investment under the global "China+1" strategy, positioning India as a credible and scalable alternative manufacturing hub.
• Employment Generation: By promoting the expansion of large-scale manufacturing and boosting the supporting Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises (MSME) ecosystem, the scheme is designed to create substantial direct and indirect employment across technology and manufacturing sectors. 

Achievements and Early Successes

• Electronics Sector Transformation: Mobile phone exports surged from ₹1,500 crore in 2014-15 to ₹2 lakh crore in 2024-25. India now ranks as the world's second-largest mobile phone manufacturer, successfully attracting global giants like Apple and Samsung to ramp up production.
• Significant Investment and Job Creation: As of 2024, the PLI schemes have attracted over ₹1.07 lakh crore in investment, leading to the creation of over 7 lakh direct and indirect jobs.
• Boosting Domestic Value Addition (DVA): In key sectors, DVA has reportedly crossed 20%, shifting production from simple assembly to deeper manufacturing processes within India.
• Pharmaceutical Self-Reliance: The PLI for pharmaceuticals successfully incentivized the domestic production of 35 critical Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients (APIs), substantially reducing reliance on foreign imports.
• Fostering Technological Innovation: Encourages the adoption of advanced technologies, especially in emerging fields like electric vehicles (EVs), renewable energy, and drone components.

Challenges and Areas for Improvement

Despite its successes, the PLI scheme faces implementation hurdles and requires strategic adjustments:

Challenge	Way Forward
Excluding MSMEs	Increase Support for MSMEs: Introduce a parallel, lower-threshold PLI scheme specifically for MSMEs, or mandate that large beneficiaries source a defined percentage of components from domestic MSMEs.
Shallow Value Addition	Link Incentives to DVA: Strengthen the scheme design by making incentives contingent on achieving a pre-defined and progressively increasing level of Domestic Value Addition (DVA).
Bureaucratic Delays	Streamline Disbursement: Simplify the verification and claim process for sales data using a fully digital, time-bound platform to ensure prompt release of funds and improved business cash flow.
Uneven Performance	Dynamic Review and Course Correction: Institute a periodic, independent review mechanism to assess the performance of each of the 14 sectors and adjust incentive structures or eligibility criteria based on sectoral realities.
Lack of R&D Focus	Incentivize Innovation: Create a stronger focus on research and development (R&D) by rewarding companies not just for scaling production, but also for adopting advanced technologies and innovating in product design.
Environmental Sustainability	Promote Green Manufacturing: Introduce incentives within the scheme to encourage the adoption of environmentally sustainable manufacturing practices, green technologies, and energy-efficient processes.

Conclusion

The PLI scheme has revitalized India’s manufacturing, especially electronics, by attracting investment and boosting exports. To fully create a competitive and inclusive manufacturing ecosystem, it must focus on increasing domestic value addition, expanding MSME participation, and linking incentives to quality job creation—turning a successful policy into a transformative force for the economy.

Q13. Examine the factors responsible for depleting groundwater in India. What are the steps taken by the government to mitigate such depletion of groundwater? 15 (Answer in 250 words)  

Approach ●       Introduction: Start with a fact about groundwater usage to establish the scale of the problem. ●       Body: Detail the key factors responsible for groundwater depletion, categorizing them for clarity. Outline the government's multi-pronged mitigation strategy, dividing it into demand-side and supply-side management and citing specific schemes. ●       Conclusion: Summarize the gravity of the situation and emphasize the need for an integrated, community-driven approach for a sustainable solution.

Introduction

India is the world's largest user of groundwater, a resource that is fundamental to the nation's water and food security. According to the Central Ground Water Board, groundwater provides for nearly 62% of irrigation, 85% of rural drinking water, and 50% of urban water supply. This over-extraction has led to a silent but escalating crisis of groundwater depletion, which threatens India's agricultural productivity and creates severe water scarcity for millions.

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Main Factors Driving Depletion of Groundwater

• Agricultural Overuse: Nearly 52% of all irrigation comes from groundwater. States like Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh overdraw water for water-intensive crops like paddy and sugarcane. Subsidized electricity for pumping encourages more extraction.
• Population Growth and Urbanization: According to the UN India's population increased to 1.45 billion (2024). By 2050, it could reach 1.7 billion, with 400 million moving to cities. Urban areas expand, covering recharge zones with roads/buildings. Greater water demand for households, industries increases pressure on groundwater. Delhi’s groundwater has fallen by more than 24 meters in the past decade.
• Inefficient Water Use and Wastage: Outdated irrigation methods (flood irrigation), leaking pipes, and poor distribution systems waste water. Mumbai loses 30-35% of piped water supply due to leaks and theft. Many urban areas discharge untreated wastewater, polluting groundwater.
• Climate Change and Rainfall Variability: Mean annual rainfall has declined by 6% since the 1950s. Unpredictable monsoons, droughts, and floods disrupt groundwater recharge. Drought-prone areas extract more groundwater, hastening depletion.
• Weak Regulations and Poor Enforcement: Only 14% of overexploited blocks are legally “notified” and regulated. Most states lack strict groundwater extraction laws or do not fully enforce them. Unchecked drilling and pumping go on even in critical areas. ​
• Pollution and Contamination: Fertilizers, pesticides, and untreated wastewater leach into aquifers. Chemical contamination (nitrate, fluoride, arsenic) affects millions. According to the CPCB, more than 70% of India's surface water is polluted.​

Steps Taken by Government to Address Groundwater Depletion

• National Water Policy (2012): Advocates for unified water resource management, emphasizing demand management and community participation over engineering-based solutions.
• Jal Shakti Abhiyan (2019): Launched to conserve water and promote rainwater harvesting in water-stressed districts. Focuses on renovating traditional water bodies, recharging borewells, and afforestation.
• Master Plan for Artificial Recharge to Groundwater 2020: Identifies potential sites and outlines a blueprint for constructing over 1.4 crore rainwater harvesting and artificial recharge structures to capture monsoon runoff.
• Central Ground Water Authority (CGWA) Regulation: Regulates groundwater withdrawal by industries and infrastructure projects, requiring "No Objection Certificates" (NOCs) and water conservation measures.
• Mission Amrit Sarovar: Aims to revitalize at least 75 water bodies in every district to harvest rainwater and improve storage
• National Aquifer Mapping and Management Program (NAQUIM): Maps aquifers to understand their characteristics, enabling the development of sustainable groundwater management plans.
• Improved Monitoring and Regulation: The Composite Water Management Index by NITI Aayog encourages states to compete in improving efficiency, data discipline, and water conservation
• Atal Bhujal Yojana: A ₹6,000 crore scheme implemented in seven water-stressed states, focusing on community-led groundwater management. Empowers gram panchayats to prepare water budgets and practice efficient water use.
• Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY): Promotes micro-irrigation systems like drips and sprinklers by providing financial assistance to farmers, improving water use efficiency in agriculture.

Challenges in Implementation

• Many schemes are under-funded or implemented patchily.
• Local enforcement remains weak; unregulated extraction continues in several states.
• Lack of reliable real-time data can hamper targeted action.
• Behavior change is slow, with many farmers reluctant to switch to less water-intensive crops.

Way Forward 

• Adopt Demand-Side Management: Encourage farmers to grow less water-intensive crops and shift to micro-irrigation. Subsidies that encourage water-intensive crops in dry areas need urgent reform.
• Strengthen Regulations: Penalties for illegal extraction must be enforced strictly. States must strengthen implementation of groundwater laws and promote “community water budgeting”—as seen in successful models like Gujarat and Telangana.​
• Focus on Pollution Control: Promote organic farming, regulate industrial discharge, and invest in wastewater treatment to reduce contamination.
• Scale up Community Participation: Empower local communities and panchayats to manage and protect groundwater resources. Community empowerment programs—like Mission Kakatiya (Telangana) and participatory management in Maharashtra—offer replicable models.
• Leverage Technology: Use sensors, remote sensing, and digital dashboards for real-time monitoring and management.
• Promote Urban Water Reuse and Conservation: Implement strict norms for rainwater harvesting in cities and encourage recycling/reuse in industries and municipalities.
• Integrate Climate Resilience: Make water management plans resilient to droughts, floods, and climate extremes, backed by data and forecasts.

Conclusion

India's groundwater crisis originates from agricultural overuse, rapid population growth, inefficient water management, weak regulation, and pollution. Despite ambitious government initiatives, the pace and coverage remain insufficient. A coordinated effort among policymakers, communities, scientists, and water users is essential to ensure sustainable water security for health and prosperity.

Q14. Examine the scope of the food processing industries in India. Elaborate the measures taken by the government in the food processing industries for generating employment opportunities. 15 (Answer in 250 words)  

Approach ●       Introduction: Define Food Processing Industry (FPI) as a high-potential, "sunrise sector," and provide a key statistic on its economic contribution. ●       Body: Examine the scope of the FPI, breaking it down into key growth segments and highlighting the untapped potential with relevant data. Discuss specific government measures, linking each scheme to its mechanism for generating employment opportunities. ●       Conclusion: Summarize the industry's potential and the government's role, and provide a forward-looking statement.

Introduction

The food processing industry acts as a vital bridge between agriculture and manufacturing, transforming surplus produce into value-added products. It boosts rural incomes, reduces wastage, and expands India’s food basket. As a sunrise sector, the FPI contributes nearly 13% to the country's export earnings and 6% of total industrial investment. Its potential for value addition and employment generation is immense.

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Scope of Food Processing Industries in India

• Huge Raw Material Advantage: India leads globally in the production of milk, pulses, and spices; it ranks second in fruits, vegetables, tea, and sugarcane. These abundant resources allow firms to add value via dairy processing, grain milling, spice grinding, and more.
• Rising Domestic Demand: Rapid urbanisation, growing incomes, and changing diets drive demand for processed, ready-to-eat, and convenience foods. As of 2024, the Indian food and grocery market is the world's sixth largest, with retail contributing 70% of the sales.
• Export & Foreign Exchange Opportunities: India sends processed foods to over 100 countries. Sectors like marine, rice, fruits & vegetables, and spices have shown strong export growth. Agriculture and processed food exports reached about $49.4 billion in Financial Year 2024-25.
• Reduces Post-Harvest Waste & Losses: Because processing increases shelf life and preserves perishables, it helps cut large post-harvest losses. Better storage, cold chain logistics, and processing stabilise prices and improve farmer incomes.
• Government Support: Schemes (Pradhan Mantri Kisan SAMPADA Yojana, PM Formalisation of Micro Food Processing Enterprises Scheme.etc.) provide financial incentives, infrastructure, cold chains, mega food parks, and policy support. These promote MSMEs, improve supply-chains, and open new markets.
• Employment & Livelihood Generation: Food processing is labour-intensive. According to the Ministry of Food Processing Industries (MoFPI), the sector employs 12.38% of employment in the registered factory sector. It creates jobs in rural and semi-urban areas, especially in MSMEs. It helps in diversifying incomes beyond farming.
• Strong Growth & Investment Potential: From April 2000 to March 2025, the food processing industry received over $13.1 billion Foreign Direct Investment (FDI). 

Government Measures for Employment Generation in the FPI

• Pradhan Mantri Kisan Sampada Yojana (PMKSY) focuses on creating modern food processing infrastructure, including Mega Food Parks, integrated cold chains, and value addition units.
• Production Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme for Food Processing with an outlay of ₹10,900 crore, the PLI scheme incentivizes companies to enhance production and sales of processed food products.
• PM Formalisation of Micro Food Processing Enterprises (PMFME) Scheme: Launched as part of Atmanirbhar Bharat, this scheme provides credit-linked subsidies of 35% (up to ₹10 lakh) to micro food processing units. It focuses on establishing modern infrastructure and efficient supply chain management from the farm gate to retail outlets.
• Mega Food Parks Scheme: Government provides grants up to ₹50 crore for each food park to a consortium of companies, aiming to establish a direct linkage from farm to processing and then to consumer markets.
• Investment Promotion Policies: States like Uttar Pradesh have introduced policies offering subsidies and tax exemptions to attract investments in the food processing sector.

Challenges

• Poor infrastructure: Weak cold chains, logistics and warehouse networks cause huge post-harvest losses (over ₹1. 52 lakh crore annually, according to a Ministry of Food Processing Industries).
• Supply fragmentation: With 86% of farmers small or marginal, aggregating consistent, quality produce is hard.
• Regulatory burden: Multiple food laws, overlapping agencies, complex FSSAI and export rules raise barriers and costs.
• Technology & skill gaps: Many units rely on outdated methods; trained manpower in packaging, quality testing is scarce.
• Finance constraints: MSMEs struggle to access low-cost capital for scale-up or modernization.
• Quality, waste & traceability: Inconsistent standards, spoilage, and weak traceability hurt exports and brand value.
• Scale inefficiency & informality: Many processors operate informally or at micro scale, limiting standardization and uptake of incentives.

Steps to strengthen Food processing sector

• Build cluster-based food parks, cold-chain corridors and aggregation hubs close to production zones.
• Introduce a single-window regulatory platform to simplify licensing across agencies.
• Strengthen and scale FPOs / cooperatives to aggregate supply, ensure quality, and reduce intermediation.
• Incentivize adoption of modern processing, packaging, IoT and traceability tools with subsidies or soft loans.
• Launch focused skilling and certification programs in food safety, quality testing, maintenance.
• Expand finance access — credit, grants and risk guarantees — specifically for MSMEs.
• Promote quality standards, branding and traceability systems (GI, QR codes, blockchain).
• Push for formalization and consolidation (mergers, alliances) to achieve economies of scale.
• Leverage public–private partnerships for infrastructure, R&D labs, testing facilities; monitor scheme delivery closely.

Conclusion

The food processing industry drives growth by linking agriculture with consumer demand. Government initiatives like PMKSY, PLI, and PMFME boost infrastructure, production, and entrepreneurship. By reducing food waste, raising farmers’ incomes, and creating millions of jobs, the sector provides rural revitalization and inclusive economic development.

Q15. How does nanotechnology offer significant advancements in the field of agriculture? How can this technology help to uplift the socio-economic status of farmers?  15 (Answer in 250 words)  

Approach ●       Introduction: Define nanotechnology in the context of agriculture and state its potential to revolutionize traditional farming practices. ●       Body: Elaborate the specific scientific advancements nanotechnology offers. Link the technological advancements to the socio-economic upliftment of farmers. ●       Conclusion: Summarize the transformative potential of nanotechnology.

Introduction

Nanotechnology is the science of manipulating matter on an atomic and molecular scale (at the level of nanometers, which is one-billionth of a meter). In agriculture, this technology offers practical, on-the-ground solutions to create "precision agriculture"—a hyper-efficient farming method that aims to produce more with less. By enhancing the efficiency of inputs and the resilience of crops, nanotechnology holds the immense potential to uplift the socio-economic status of farmers.

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Significant Advancements Offered by Nanotechnology in Agriculture

• Nano-Fertilizers: Nano-Urea and Nano-DAP absorb directly into plants with over 80% efficiency, replacing bulky conventional fertilizers. A 500 ml bottle of Nano-Urea can replace a 45 kg urea bag, cutting costs and reducing environmental pollution.
• Nano-Sensors: Tiny sensors monitor soil moisture, nutrients, pH, and early signs of pests or disease, enabling timely interventions and precision farming.
• Nano-Coatings: Food packaging with antimicrobial nanoparticles extends shelf life. Thin nano-polymers applied on fruits slow ripening and reduce spoilage, improving export readiness.
• Nano-Carriers in Genetic Engineering: Deliver targeted genes into plants to enhance drought resistance, nutrition, or yield without complex modification.
• Precision Nutrient Delivery: Nanofertilizers enable controlled release of nutrients, reducing runoff and enhancing uptake, which improves crop yield and minimizes environmental impact.
• Targeted Pest Control: Nanopesticides offer precise application, reducing chemical use and environmental toxicity, while effectively combating pests and pathogens.
• Enhanced Crop Monitoring: Nanosensors provide real-time data on soil health, moisture levels, and plant stress, enabling informed decision-making and efficient resource use.
• Improved Plant Stress Tolerance: Nanotechnology aids in fortifying plants against abiotic stresses like drought and salinity, ensuring stable productivity under challenging conditions.
• Early Disease Detection: Nano-sensors detect pests and diseases early, allowing timely interventions and reducing crop losses.
• Climate Resilience: Enhanced nutrient uptake and water retention help crops withstand environmental stresses.
• Water Conservation: Nano-polymers retain soil moisture, decreasing irrigation needs and conserving water resources.
• Improved Soil Quality: Reduced chemical runoff prevents soil degradation and protects groundwater. 

How Nanotechnology Can Uplift the Socio-Economic Status of Farmers

• Higher Yields: Nano-fertilizers enhance nutrient absorption, improving crop health and increasing yields by 8–10%.
• Reduced Post-Harvest Losses: Nano-coatings extend shelf life, allowing farmers to sell more produce at better prices.
• Efficient Water Use: Nano-polymers retain soil moisture, reducing irrigation needs and energy expenses.
• Prevents Crop Failures: Nano-sensors provide early warnings against pests, diseases, and water stress.
• Protects Soil and Health: Reduced chemical use preserves soil quality, prevents groundwater contamination, and lowers health risks for farmers and families.
• Reduced Input Costs: Nano-urea enhances nitrogen efficiency, requiring smaller quantities than traditional fertilizers, leading to cost savings.
• Increased Profit Margins: Efficient nutrient delivery and reduced wastage translate to higher profits for farmers. 

Challenges to address to expand the application of Nanotechnology in Agriculture

• Technological and Economic Barriers: The high cost of developing and scaling nanotechnology products limits their accessibility, especially for small-scale farmers.
• Regulatory and Safety Concerns: India lacks comprehensive regulations for nanomaterials in agriculture, leading to uncertainties regarding their safety and environmental impact.
• Environmental and Health Risks: Nanomaterials may accumulate in soil and water, disrupting ecosystems and affecting human health. Their high reactivity and potential to migrate into food chains necessitate thorough risk assessments. 

Way Forward to strengthen the application of Nanotechnology in Agriculture

• Policy Development: Formulate clear regulations and safety standards for nanotechnology applications in agriculture.
• Collaborative Research: Encourage partnerships between research institutions, industry, and government to develop affordable and scalable nanotech solutions.
• Infrastructure Investment: Invest in infrastructure to support the production and distribution of nanotechnology-based agricultural products. 

By addressing these challenges and implementing strategic initiatives, nanotechnology can significantly contribute to sustainable and efficient agricultural practices in India. 

Conclusion

Nanotechnology can transform Indian agriculture by making farming precise, efficient, and resilient. It boosts productivity, reduces costs, increases farmer incomes, and lowers risks. Government and research institutions must ensure these technologies are affordable, accessible, and responsibly adopted nationwide.

Q16. India aims to become a semiconductor manufacturing hub. What are the challenges faced by the semiconductor industry in India? Mention the salient features of the India Semiconductor Mission. 15 (Answer in 250 words)   

Approach ●       Introduction: State the strategic importance of semiconductors in the modern economy. ●       Body: Examine the challenges faced by the semiconductor industry in India. Detail the features of the India Semiconductor Mission (ISM), explaining how each component is designed to address the identified challenges. ●       Conclusion: Provide a balanced summary of India's ambitious journey.

Introduction

Semiconductors, or microchips, are the foundational components of all modern electronics, from smartphones to fighter jets. They are the "new oil" of the 21st-century digital economy. Recognizing their critical strategic and economic importance, India has launched an ambitious mission to transform itself from a major chip consumer into a global semiconductor manufacturing hub.  

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Challenges Faced by the Semiconductor Industry in India

• High costs: Huge capital investment for semiconductor fabrication plant (fab) (up to $20 billion) and long payback periods deter private investors.
• Infrastructure gaps: Insufficient access to 24/7 high-quality power and ultra-pure water is a major roadblock for manufacturing.
• Talent shortage: Despite design expertise, India faces a significant deficit of skilled professionals for manufacturing and advanced technologies.
• Technology dependency: The country relies heavily on imports for advanced equipment, materials, and IP, making it vulnerable to global supply chain shocks and export controls.
• Intense competition: Established global players (eg. China, Taiwan, USA) have decades of experience, scale, and mature ecosystems, making it difficult for India to compete effectively.
• Geopolitical risks: Tensions between global tech powers can disrupt supply chains and limit India's access to crucial equipment.
• Environmental concerns: Semiconductor manufacturing is energy and water-intensive and produces hazardous waste, requiring robust and costly environmental safeguards.
• Regulatory delays: Slow and complex bureaucratic processes can cause significant project delays, increasing costs and risk for investors.

Salient Features of the India Semiconductor Mission (ISM)

• It was launched in 2021 with a ₹76,000 crore outlay, aims to establish a robust semiconductor and display ecosystem in India.
• Fiscal Support for Infrastructure: Up to 50% financial assistance for setting up semiconductor fabrication (fab) plants, display fabs, and assembly, testing, marking, and packaging (ATMP) or outsourced semiconductor assembly and test (OSAT) units.
• Design Linked Incentive (DLI) Scheme: Offers financial support of up to ₹15 crore per company to domestic startups and MSMEs for chip design, electronic design automation (EDA) tools, and prototyping.
• Cluster-Based Infrastructure Development: Promotes the establishment of semiconductor hubs with shared facilities for testing, packaging, and research and development (R&D) to reduce costs. The Dholera Special Investment Region in Gujarat has been selected for Tata's ₹91,000 crore fab project.
• Strategic Partnerships: Encourages collaboration between the government and private sector players, including global semiconductor companies, to build a robust ecosystem in India.
• Focus on Next-Generation Technologies: Prioritizes the development of Silicon Carbide (SiC) wafer manufacturing for applications in electric vehicles (EVs), 5G, and renewable energy.
• Chips to Startup (C2S) Programme: Aims to train 85,000 engineers in semiconductor design and manufacturing over five years.
• Dedicated Nodal Agency: The ISM serves as a single-window nodal agency for all matters related to the semiconductor industry.

Way Forward for India Semiconductor Mission (ISM)

Manufacturing and infrastructure

• Execute projects quickly: Fast-track the operationalization of approved projects, such as the Tata-PSMC fab in Gujarat, to build global confidence.
• Build the supply chain: Develop domestic manufacturing for specialty chemicals, gases, and high-purity water systems to support fabrication plants.
• Secure resources: Ensure a reliable and uninterrupted supply of power and water for fab zones like the Dholera Special Investment Region. 

Talent and innovation

• Scale up training: Enhance and expand programs like the Chips to Startup (C2S) to train a large pool of engineers in advanced manufacturing and design.
• Boost research: Increase investment in semiconductor R&D to bridge the technology gap and promote indigenous intellectual property development.
• Focus on niche areas: Target mature process nodes (28nm and above) for sectors like automotive and power management, while also pursuing advanced research for cutting-edge technologies. 

Partnerships and market positioning

• Promote strategic alliances: Deepen collaborations with key international players like the US, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan to secure technology transfers and integrate into global supply chains.
• Leverage geopolitical shifts: Capitalize on global supply chain realignments to position India as a reliable and transparent partner.
• Spur domestic demand: Encourage government and private sector procurement of domestically produced chips to ensure a stable market for Indian manufacturers. 

Conclusion

India aims to become a semiconductor hub to strengthen its economy and national security. Despite challenges in capital, infrastructure, talent, and technology, the India Semiconductor Mission provides fiscal incentives and a clear roadmap. Successful ISM implementation is vital for technological self-reliance and establishing India as a leading digital power.

Q17. Mineral resources are fundamental to the country's economy and these are exploited by mining. Why is mining considered an environmental hazard ? Explain the remedial measures required to reduce the environmental hazard due to mining. 15 (Answer in 250 words)  

Approach ●       Introduction: Acknowledge the dual nature of mining—its necessity for the economy and its inherent environmental risks. ●       Body: Detail why mining is an environmental hazard. Elaborate on the remedial measures, and referencing key government policies. ●       Conclusion: Summarize the need for a paradigm shift towards sustainable mining.

Introduction

Mineral resources are the backbone of a country's industrial economy, and mining is the essential process of extracting them. However, this economic necessity comes at a great environmental cost. When conducted without scientific planning and strict regulation, mining transforms from an economic activity into a severe environmental hazard, causing long-lasting damage to land, water, air, and biodiversity. 

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Mineral resources are fundamental to India economy

• Energy security: India relies on coal for approximately 55% of its energy mix, and around 74% of the country’s electricity is generated by coal-based power plants. Domestic production surpassed 1 billion tonnes in FY 2024–25.
• Steel industry: India, the world's second-largest steel producer, relies heavily on its iron ore reserves.
• Clean energy: Critical minerals like lithium, cobalt, and nickel are essential for green energy transition, including EV batteries and solar panels. Initiatives like the National Critical Minerals Mission (NCMM) focus on securing supply chains for essential minerals through domestic exploration and overseas acquisitions.
• GDP contribution: The gross value added (GVA) of the mining & quarrying sector accounts for 2% of the country's GDP.
• Regional development: Revenue from mining, channeled through mechanisms like the District Mineral Foundation (DMF), funds local infrastructure and welfare programs in affected communities.
• Trade balance: Mineral exports contribute to India's foreign exchange earnings, with states like Odisha and Goa playing key roles. 

Why Mining is Considered an Environmental Hazard

Land degradation and habitat destruction

• Deforestation and habitat loss: Extensive land clearing is required for open-cast mines and associated infrastructure. Between 2001 and 2020, mining activities were responsible for the loss of 1.4 million hectares of forest cover globally.
• Soil erosion: Removal of topsoil and vegetation exposes the land to wind and rain, causing soil erosion. This can lead to landslides and desertification, in hilly or arid regions.
• Landscape scarring: Mining leaves behind massive open pits, spoil tips (waste rock piles), and subsided land from underground mining.
• Biodiversity loss: Destruction and fragmentation of ecosystems can drive species to extinction. For example, illegal sand mining around India's Son Gharial Wildlife Sanctuary has been linked to the decimation of the local gharial population. 

Water contamination and depletion

• Acid mine drainage (AMD): Sulfide minerals in exposed rock react with air and water to form sulfuric acid. This acidic runoff leaches toxic heavy metals, like arsenic and lead, which contaminate water sources for thousands of years.
• Heavy metal leaching: Metals like arsenic, cadmium, and lead can leach into surface and groundwater from waste rock and tailings.
• Chemical pollution: Toxic chemicals, such as cyanide and sulfuric acid used in processing, can leak or spill into nearby water bodies.
• Groundwater depletion: Large-scale mining requires excessive pumping of groundwater, which can lower the water table and dry up local rivers and wells. 

Air pollution and climate change

• Dust and particulate matter: Activities like drilling, blasting, and transporting minerals release fine, breathable dust (PM10 and PM2.5) that cause severe respiratory diseases, including silicosis and lung cancer.
• Greenhouse gas emissions: The mining industry accounts for 4–7% of global greenhouse gas emissions. Emissions come from machinery, energy consumption, and the release of potent gases like methane from coal mines.
• Toxic gases: Smelting and other processes can release sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and other harmful gases that contribute to acid rain.

Waste generation and long-term consequences

• Massive waste streams: Mining generates more waste than any other industrial activity. India alone is estimated to produce over 170 million tonnes of solid mining waste annually.
• Tailings dam failures: Tailings (the toxic slurry of ground rock and processing fluids) stored in dams can fail catastrophically.
• Perpetual pollution: Contamination can persist for centuries after a mine is abandoned, creating a toxic legacy that places a long-term burden on the environment and surrounding communities. For example, the Jharia coalfield fire has been burning for over a century, displacing thousands. 

Remedial Measures to Reduce Environmental Hazards

• Addressing mining-related environmental hazards requires integrating strong regulation, sustainable practices, technology, and community participation at every stage—from planning to closure.
• Strengthen Regulatory Framework: Conduct independent, credible Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA) with robust public consultations before granting leases. Empower State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs) to enforce norms strictly and impose heavy penalties on violators. Ensure adherence to EIA 2006, National Green Tribunal (NGT) directions, and Article 21 (“right to clean environment”).
• Adopt Sustainable Mining Practices
  • Water management: Install effluent treatment plants and follow “Zero Liquid Discharge” principles.
  • Air pollution control: Suppress dust using sprinklers, mist cannons, and green belts.
  • Waste management: Backfill mined areas, terrace overburden dumps, and prevent leaching.
  • Concurrent reclamation: Restore land progressively rather than waiting for mine closure.
• Implement Scientific Mine Closure and Reclamation: Spread topsoil and revegetate with native species to restore ecosystems. Fund reclamation via District Mineral Foundation (DMF) contributions from mining royalties.
• Leverage Technology for Monitoring: Use drones, satellites, and IoT devices to track mining activities, verify reclamation, and curb illegal operations.
• Promote Transparency and Reforms: Follow recommendations like the Kasturirangan Committee (2018) for transparent auctions, production caps, and strict compliance. 

Conclusion

India must shift from extractive mining to sustainable practices by enforcing strict regulations, adopting eco-friendly technologies, and engaging local communities via the DMF. Integrating mine closure, land reclamation, and the "polluter pays" principle ensures economic growth while safeguarding the environment for future generations.

Q18. Write a review on India's climate commitments under the Paris Agreement (2015) and mention how these have been further strengthened in COP26 (2021). In this direction, how has the first Nationally Determined Contribution intended by India been updated in 2022? 15 (Answer in 250 words)  

Approach ●       Introduction: Discuss the Paris Agreement and India's role as a key developing nation balancing growth with climate responsibility. ●       Body: Detail India's initial climate commitments under its first Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) from 2015. Explain how these commitments were strengthened at COP26 (2021) through the 'Panchamrit' declaration. ●       Conclusion: Provide a concise summary of India's progressive and ambitious climate policy evolution.

Introduction

India has emerged as a climate leader of the Global South, balancing its developmental goals with ecological responsibilities. Guided by Article 48A and Article 51A(g) of the Constitution, it has progressively advanced its climate agenda through three key milestones: the Paris Agreement commitments (2015), the Panchamrit vision at COP26 (2021), and the Updated Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) of 2022.

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The Paris Agreement (2015): Laying the Foundation

Under the 2015 Paris Agreement, India submitted its first Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC), which outlined three primary targets to be achieved by 2030:

• Reduce the emissions intensity of its GDP by 33 to 35% from 2005 levels.
• Achieve about 40% of its cumulative electric power installed capacity from non-fossil fuel-based energy resources.
• Create an additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent through additional forest and tree cover. 

These commitments were designed to be ambitious yet mindful of India's developmental needs and the principle of "common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities" (CBDR-RC), which acknowledges that developed nations have a greater historical responsibility for emissions.

Strengthening the Ambition: COP26 in Glasgow (2021)

At the 26th Conference of the Parties (COP26) in Glasgow in 2021, India raised its climate ambitions with the announcement of the 'Panchamrit' (five nectars) – a five-pronged strategy to combat climate change:

1. Increase non-fossil energy capacity to 500 GW by 2030.
2. Meet 50% of its energy requirements from renewable energy by 2030.
3. Reduce total projected carbon emissions by one billion tonnes from now till 2030.
4. Reduce the carbon intensity of its economy by 45% by 2030, over 2005 levels.
5. Achieve the target of net-zero emissions by 2070.

This was a major step-up, particularly the net-zero target, which set a long-term vision for India's climate action. The 'Panchamrit' demonstrated India's proactive stance and its willingness to contribute more to the global climate effort. 

The Updated Nationally Determined Contribution (2022)

India formally submitted its updated NDC to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), translating the 'Panchamrit' pledges into official targets. The updated NDC enhanced the earlier commitments:

• To reduce the emissions intensity of its GDP by 45% by 2030 from 2005 levels.
• To achieve about 50% cumulative electric power installed capacity from non-fossil fuel-based energy resources by 2030, with the help of technology transfer and low-cost international finance. 

India achieved its non-fossil fuel capacity target in 2024, five years ahead of schedule, with 242.78 GW of its 484.82 GW total installed capacity coming from non-fossil sources.

Challenges on the Path to a Green Future

• Balancing Development and Decarbonization: India's growing energy demand must be met with clean energy sources without hindering economic growth and poverty alleviation.
• Financial Constraints: India would need cumulative investments of $10.1 trillion to achieve net-zero emissions by 2070, according to the CEEW Centre for Energy Finance (CEEW-CEF). Current climate finance flows are insufficient.
• Technological and Infrastructure Hurdles: Integrating large-scale renewable energy into the national grid presents technical challenges, including grid stability and intermittency of power supply.
• Dependence on Fossil Fuels: According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), coal made up 74% of India's power generation, complicating efforts to phase it out due to energy security and economic considerations.
• Land Acquisition and Resource Availability: Large-scale renewable energy projects require significant land area, and land acquisition can be complex and time-consuming.
• International Support: India's climate commitments depend on receiving adequate financial and technological support from developed countries, which has not been fully met 

The Way Forward: A Multi-pronged Strategy

• Accelerating the Renewable Energy Push: Government continues to expand solar and wind energy capacity. In the first half of 2025, India added a record 25 GW of renewable energy capacity.
• National Green Hydrogen Mission: Aims to make India a global hub for green hydrogen production, targeting an annual production capacity of at least 5 million metric tonnes by 2030.
• Promoting Energy Efficiency: Reducing energy consumption through enhanced energy efficiency across industries, buildings, and transportation is a cost-effective way to lower emissions.
• Mobilizing Green Finance: Innovative financial mechanisms are needed to attract both domestic and international private investment in clean energy projects.
• Lifestyle for Environment (LiFE) Mission: India has endorsed the concept of 'Lifestyle for Environment' on the global stage, emphasizing the importance of individual and community action in promoting sustainable consumption and production patterns.
• Strengthening International Cooperation: Continued engagement with the international community is essential to secure the necessary finance, technology transfer, and collaborative research and development to accelerate climate action. 

Conclusion

India’s climate commitments have strengthened over time, from the Paris Agreement to the updated NDC and 'Panchamrit' pledges. Through proactive policies, renewable energy expansion, energy efficiency, and green technologies like hydrogen, India charts a clear path toward a sustainable future, contributing to global climate action.

Q19. What are the major challenges to internal security and peace process in the North-Eastern States? Map the various peace accords and agreements initiated by the government in the past decade. 15 (Answer in 250 words)  

Approach ●       Introduction: Briefly introduce the North-East's strategic importance and its complex history of insurgency ●       Body: Examine the major challenges to internal security, list the key peace accords and agreements initiated by the government in the last decade ●       Conclusion: Summarize the government's dual-pronged strategy and provide a balanced, forward-looking perspective on the path to lasting peace in the region.

Introduction

India's North-Eastern States, connected to the mainland by the narrow Siliguri Corridor, are a region of strategic importance and cultural diversity. For decades, this region has been a focal point of internal security challenges, marked by complex insurgencies and ethnic conflicts. However, the last decade has witnessed an improvement in the security situation, driven by a concerted government strategy of dialogue and development.

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Major challenges to internal security

• Ethnic and Identity-Based Conflicts: The region's over 200 ethnic and tribal groups often clash over land, resources, and political representation. The 2023 Manipur violence between the Meitei and Kuki communities resulted in over 260 deaths and displaced more than 70,000 people.
• Persistent Insurgency: Despite peace accords, insurgent groups remain active. In 2024, Northeast India recorded 266 insurgency-related incidents. These groups often engage in extortion, kidnapping, and gun-running, forming a nexus with organized crime.
• Porous International Borders: The region shares long international borders, facilitating arms and drug trafficking. Proximity to the "Golden Triangle" enables the flow of narcotics and illegal weapons, while porous borders allow cross-border movement of militants and illegal migrants, impacting the region's demography and exacerbating ethnic tensions.
• Inter-State Border Disputes: Colonial-era border demarcations have led to ongoing territorial disputes. For example, the 2021 Assam-Mizoram conflict resulted in the death of six Assam police personnel and injured dozens.
• Economic Underdevelopment: High unemployment, poor infrastructure, and low industrialization create fertile ground for insurgency. The absence of economic opportunities has turned insurgency into an "industry" that benefits militants, criminals, and politicians.

Challenges to the Peace Process

• Multiplicity of Insurgent Groups: With competing or overlapping demands, complicates negotiation efforts. Even after major peace accords, fragment groups can emerge or refuse to join, leading to continued sporadic violence.
• Fragmented Demands: Resolving one group's demands may antagonize others. For example, the Naga peace process, centered around the creation of "Nagalim," overlaps with territories claimed by other ethnic groups in Manipur, fueling new clashes.
• Trust Deficit: A history of unfulfilled promises from past agreements has created a trust deficit between insurgent groups and the state. Many groups fear the government may not fully implement rehabilitation packages or autonomy promised in accords.
• External Factors: Instability in neighboring countries, like Myanmar, directly impact the peace process by providing safe havens and support for militant groups. The military junta's seizure of power in Myanmar in 2021 led to a massive influx of refugees and added to the region's security concerns.
• Socio-Economic Integration of Surrendered Militants: Integrating former insurgents back into society is challenging, requiring vocational training, employment opportunities, and addressing psychological trauma. Failed rehabilitation efforts can push individuals back toward violence.

Peace accords and agreements in the past decade to resolve the northeast issue

• Naga Framework Agreement (2015): The Government of India signed a framework agreement with the National Socialist Council of Nagaland (NSCN I-M) to formally recognize the unique Naga history and lay the groundwork for a final peace settlement. However, a comprehensive accord is still pending due to disagreements over a separate Naga flag and constitution.
• Bru-Reang Agreement (2020): A tripartite agreement involving the central government and the state governments of Tripura and Mizoram ended a 23-year-long crisis. It facilitated the permanent settlement of over 37,000 displaced Bru tribals in Tripura, ensuring their rehabilitation with financial aid and land.
• Bodo Peace Accord (2020): This accord brought peace to the Bodoland region by enhancing the powers of the Bodoland Territorial Region (BTR), leading to the surrender of over 1,600 cadres from the National Democratic Front of Bodoland (NDFB) and providing rehabilitation.
• Karbi-Anglong Agreement (2021): Signed with six Karbi insurgent groups, this accord led to the surrender of over 1,000 militants and provided a ₹1,000 crore development package for the Karbi Anglong Autonomous Council.
• Dimasa National Liberation Army (DNLA) Agreement (2023): This agreement led to the complete disbanding of the DNLA in Assam's Dima Hasao district, with its cadres surrendering their arms and joining the democratic process.
• Suspension of Operations (SoO) agreements: Temporary ceasefires are maintained with various Kuki and Zomi armed groups in Manipur, managed by a Joint Monitoring Group, to facilitate ongoing dialogue and prevent escalation of violence.
• Assam Peace Initiatives (2022–2023): Included surrender agreements with ULFA (pro-talks faction) in 2023 and Adivasi armed groups in 2022. These initiatives led to the surrender of hundreds of cadres and significant development packages.

Way Forward for lasting peace in the region

• Negotiate inclusive peace accords: Acknowledge that different ethnic groups have unique grievances. Instead of forcing a single solution, negotiate separate, comprehensive agreements with each insurgent group.
• Resolve border disputes: Expedite the resolution of inter-state border disputes, which have historically fueled violence.
• Strengthen autonomous councils: Decentralize power by empowering autonomous district councils and other local governance structures. This enhances decision-making and gives local communities a greater stake in their future.
• Invest in infrastructure: Schemes like the Prime Minister's Development Initiative for North East Region (PM-DevINE) aim to bridge developmental gaps.
• Boost private investment: The Uttar Poorva Transformative Industrialization Scheme (UNNATI-2024) provides incentives to attract private investment and foster industrial growth.
• Promote connectivity: Improve connectivity under the Act East Policy, linking the Northeast to Southeast Asian markets.
• Modernize border management: Use technology and enhanced fencing to curb cross-border trafficking of arms and drugs, which provides funding for insurgent groups.
• Improve police accountability: Ensure that the police act impartially in ethnic conflicts and hold personnel accountable for misconduct to rebuild trust with local communities.
• Enhance dialogue mechanisms: Establish formal platforms for inter-ethnic dialogue to address historical grievances and prevent flare-ups, similar to the Forum for Naga Reconciliation (FNR).
• Implement effective rehabilitation: Provide holistic rehabilitation for surrendered militants, including vocational training and livelihood support, to ensure their successful reintegration into society.

Conclusion

The Indian government's peace accords have reduced insurgent activity in the North-East. However, the resurgence of ethnic violence in Manipur and the return of militant groups from Myanmar highlights the need for inclusive dialogue, accelerated development, and enhanced border security to ensure lasting peace.  

Q20. Why is maritime security vital to protect India's sea trade? Discuss maritime and coastal security challenges and the way forward. 15 (Answer in 250 words)  

Approach ●       Introduction: Start by establishing the fundamental link between India's economy and its maritime trade. ●       Body: Explain why maritime security is vital for protecting India's sea trade. Discuss the major maritime and coastal security challenges. Outline a clear and structured "way forward," detailing the integrated measures required to address these challenges. ●       Conclusion: Summarize the strategic imperative of maritime security for India's ambition to be a leading global power.

Introduction

Maritime security is the comprehensive protection of a nation's interests at sea, including everything from safeguarding trade routes and coastal communities to countering threats like piracy, terrorism, and illegal trafficking. For India, a peninsular nation with a 7,500 km coastline, over 1,200 islands, maritime security is not just a matter of defense; it is the fundamental enabler of economic prosperity, energy security, and strategic ambition to be a leading power in the Indo-Pacific.

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Why Maritime Security is Vital for India's Sea Trade

• Economic Backbone: Over 90% of India's international trade by volume and 70% by value is sea-borne. Secure sea lanes ensure uninterrupted trade, vital for economic growth.
• Energy Security: Over 85% of India's crude oil imports pass through maritime chokepoints like the Strait of Hormuz and the Strait of Malacca. Disruptions in these routes can significantly impact energy supply and costs.
• Blue Economy: The blue economy, encompassing fisheries, offshore energy, and shipping, contributes about 4% to India's GDP. Secure maritime zones are essential for sustainable development and protecting coastal livelihoods.
• Strategic Positioning: India's central location in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR) positions it as a key player in regional maritime security. Initiatives like SAGAR (Security and Growth for All in the Region) underscore India's role as a net security provider.
• Geopolitical Influence: Active maritime security enhances India's credibility in regional forums such as the QUAD and BIMSTEC, strengthening its geopolitical standing.

Maritime and Coastal Security Challenges

• Terrorism: The 26/11 Mumbai attacks highlighted vulnerabilities in coastal security. Despite improvements, the risk of infiltration by sea persists. Strengthening inter-agency coordination and surveillance is crucial.
• Piracy and Armed Robbery: While Somali piracy has declined, incidents continue near the Gulf of Aden and West Africa, affecting Indian shipping. For example, in 2024, INS Sumitra blocked two piracy attempts in the Gulf of Aden.
• Smuggling: India's extensive coastline is exploited for smuggling gold, narcotics, and human trafficking.
• Illegal, Unreported, and Unregulated (IUU) Fishing: Foreign trawlers violate India's Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), depleting marine resources and threatening local livelihoods.
• Geopolitical Tensions: China's "String of Pearls" strategy, involving bases in Gwadar, Djibouti, and Hambantota, encircles India, challenging its maritime dominance.
• Coordination Gaps: Multiple agencies like the Navy, Coast Guard, Customs, and Marine Police often face jurisdictional overlaps and weak intelligence sharing. The 2011 Naresh Chandra Committee recommended creating a National Maritime Authority to enhance coordination.
• Technological Vulnerabilities: Many minor ports and fishing harbors lack modern surveillance infrastructure. Coastal police forces are under-resourced, poorly trained, and ill-equipped for their sea-faring duties. The increasing digitization of port and shipping logistics has created new vulnerabilities to cyber-attacks.

Way Forward to Secure Maritime Domain

• Unified Command Structure: Empower the National Maritime Security Coordinator (NMSC) to oversee all maritime security agencies, ensuring unified command and eliminating jurisdictional overlaps.
• Enhanced Maritime Domain Awareness (MDA): Expand the Coastal Radar Chain and integrate data through the National Command Control Communication and Intelligence (NC3I) Network. Mandate Automatic Identification System (AIS) transponders on all vessels, including small fishing boats, to prevent unidentified entries.
• Coastal Security Capacity Building: Strengthen the Coastal Security Scheme by upgrading marine police forces with better training and equipment. Engage coastal communities through initiatives like the Sagar Suraksha Dal to act as "eyes and ears" of the security establishment
• Technological Advancements: Leverage the Information Management and Analysis Centre (IMAC) in Gurugram for real-time maritime data fusion. Integrate AI and satellite technologies for enhanced surveillance capabilities. Develop a dedicated satellite system for maritime governance.
• International Collaboration: Strengthen the Information Fusion Centre – Indian Ocean Region (IFC-IOR) for regional maritime information sharing. Participate in multilateral forums like the Indian Ocean Naval Symposium (IONS) and QUAD for joint patrols and intelligence sharing. Enhance interoperability through exercises like the India-US Malabar Exercises, which include Australia and Japan.
• Port and Infrastructure Modernization: Integrate cybersecurity protocols into port infrastructure to protect against digital threats. Implement the Maritime India Vision (MIV) 2030 roadmap to enhance port resilience and cyber preparedness.
• Legal and Regulatory Reforms: Update the Maritime Zones of India Act (1976) and Coastal Regulation Zone rules to address new threats like cyberattacks on ports. Propose new frameworks for port cyber resilience under the MIV 2030 roadmap.
• Blue Economy Integration: Align maritime security with initiatives like Sagarmala and PM Gati Shakti for safe, sustainable port-led development.

Conclusion

Maritime security is vital for economic prosperity and regional influence. By enhancing surveillance, modernizing naval capabilities, and fostering international partnerships, India aims to safeguard vital sea lanes and counter diverse threats. This proactive approach positions India as a cornerstone of stability in the Indo-Pacific.