MAJOR SOCIO-RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS IN MODERN INDIA

Swaminarayan Sampradyaga; Gujarat (early 19th century)

• Swami Sahajanand
• Belief in a theistic god, protest against epicurean practices of Vaishnavism; prescribed a moral code.

Brahmo Samaj (earlier Atmiya Sabha); Founded in Calcutta (late 18th-early 19th century)

• Raja Rammohan Roy—the founder; Debendranath Tagore—later formed Adi Brahmo Samaj; Keshub Chandra Sen—later associated with Brahmo Samaj of India (secessionists from this group formed Sadharan Brahmo Samaj)
• Propagated monotheism, opposed incarnation, meditation, sacrifices, existence of priests, idolatry, superstition, sati; sought for reforms in Hindu society.

 

Prarthana Samaj

• In 1867, Keshab Chandra Sen helped Atmaram Pandurang found the Prarthana Samaj in Bombay.
• The emphasis was on monotheism, but on the whole, the samaj was more concerned with social reforms than with religion.
• The Prarthana Sabha was very attached to the bhakti cult of Maharashtra.
• The samaj relied on education and persuasion and not on confrontation with Hindu orthodoxy.
• There was a four-point social agenda also: (i) disapproval of caste system, (ii) women’s education, (iii) widow remarriage, and (iv) raising the age of marriage for both males and females.

 

Young Bengal Movement

• During the late 1820s and early 1830s, there emerged a radical, intellectual trend among the youth in Bengal, which came to be known as the ‘Young Bengal Movement’.
• A young Anglo-Indian, Henry Vivian Derozio , who taught at the Hindu College from 1826 to 1831, was the leader and inspirer of this progressive trend.
• Drawing inspiration from the great French Revolution, Derozio inspired his pupils to think freely and rationally, question all authority, love liberty, equality and freedom, and oppose decadent customs and traditions.
• The Derozians also supported women’s rights and education.
• The Derozians, however, failed to have a long-term impact.

 

Paramahansa Mandali

• Founded in 1849 in Maharashtra, the founders of the Paramahansa Mandali—Dadoba Pandurang, Mehtaji Durgaram and others—began as a secret society that worked to reform Hindu religion and society in general.
• The ideology of the society was closely linked to that of the Manav Dharma Sabha.
• Besides believing that one god should be worshipped, the society also said real religion is based on love and moral conduct. Freedom of thought was encouraged as was rationality.

 

Satyashodhak Samaj

• Jyotiba Phule founded the Satyashodhak Samaj (Truth Seekers’ Society) in 1873, with the leadership of the samaj coming from the backward classes, malis, telis, kunbis, saris and dhangars.
• The main aims of the movement were (i) social service, and (ii) spread of education among women and lower caste people.

 

The Servants of India Society

• Gopal Krishna Gokhale , a liberal leader of the Indian National Congress, founded the Servants of India Society in 1905 with the help of M.G. Ranade.
• The aim of the society was to train national missionaries for the service of India; to promote, by all constitutional means, the true interests of the Indian people; and to prepare a cadre of selfless workers who were to devote their lives to the cause of the country in a religious spirit.

 

Social Service League

• A follower of Gokhale, Narayan Malhar Joshi founded the Social Service League in Bombay with an aim to secure for the masses better and reasonable conditions of life and work.
• They organised many schools, libraries, reading rooms, day nurseries and cooperative societies. Their activities also included police court agents’ work, legal aid and advice to the poor and illiterate, excursions for slum dwellers, facilities for gymnasia and theatrical performances, sanitary work, medical relief and boys’ clubs and scout corps.

The Ramakrishna Movement

• The didactic nationalism of the Brahmo Samaj appealed more to the intellectual elite in Bengal, while the average Bengali found more emotional satisfaction in the cult of bhakti and yoga.
• The teachings of Ramakrishna Paramahamsa found many followers.
• Two objectives of the Ramakrishna movement were—(i) to bring into existence a band of monks dedicated to a life of renunciation and practical spirituality, from among whom teachers and workers would be sent out to spread the universal message of Vedanta as illustrated in the life of Ramakrishna, and (ii) in conjunction with lay disciples to carry on preaching, philanthropic and charitable works, looking upon all men, women and children, irrespective of caste, creed or colour, as veritable manifestations of the Divine.
• Paramahamsa himself laid the foundations of the Ramakrishna Math with his young monastic disciples as a nucleus to fulfil the first objective.
• The second objective was taken up by Swami Vivekananda after Ramakrishna’s death when he founded the Ramakrishna Mission in 1897.

 

Arya Samaj

• The Arya Samaj Movement, revivalist in form though not in content, was the result of a reaction to Western influences.
• Its founder, Dayananda Saraswati’s vision of India included a classless and casteless society, a united India (religiously, socially and nationally), and an India free from foreign rule, with Aryan religion being the common religion of all.
• He took inspiration from the Vedas and considered them to be ‘India’s Rock of Ages’, the infallible and the true original seed of Hinduism. He gave the slogan “Back to the Vedas”.
• The ten guiding principles of the Arya Samaj are— (i) God is the primary source of all true knowledge; (ii) God, as all-truth, all-knowledge, almighty, immortal, creator of Universe, is alone worthy of worship; (iii) the Vedas are the books of true knowledge; (iv) an Arya should always be ready to accept truth and abandon untruth; (v) dharma, that is, due consideration of right and wrong, should be the guiding principle of all actions; (vi) the principal aim of the Samaj is to promote world’s well-being in the material, spiritual and social sense; (vii) everybody should be treated with love and justice; (viii) ignorance is to be dispelled and knowledge increased; (ix) one’s own progress should depend on uplift of all others; (x) social well-being of mankind is to be placed above an individual’s well-being.

 

Seva Sadan

• A Parsi social reformer, Behramji M. Malabari founded the Seva Sadan in 1908 along with a friend, Diwan Dayaram Gidumal.
• Malabari spoke vigorously against child marriage and for widow remarriage among Hindus.

 

Dev Samaj

• Founded in 1887 at Lahore by Shiv Narayan Agnihotri earlier a Brahmo follower, Dev Sadan is a religious and social reform society.
• The society emphasised on the eternity of the soul, the supremacy of the guru, and the need for good action.
• It called for an ideal social behaviour such as not accepting bribes, avoiding intoxicants and non-vegetarian food, and keeping away from violent actions.

Dharma Sabha

• Radhakant Deb founded this sabha in 1830.
• An orthodox society, it stood for the preservation of the status quo in socio-religious matters, opposing even the abolition of sati.
• However, it favoured the promotion of Western education, even for girls.

 

Bharat Dharma Mahamandala

• An all-India organisation of the orthodox educated Hindus, it stood for a defence of orthodox Hinduism against the teachings of the Arya Samajists, the Theosophists, and the Ramakrishna Mission.

 

Radhaswami Movement

• Tulsi Ram, a banker from Agra, also known as Shiv Dayal Saheb, founded this movement in 1861.
• The Radhaswamis believe in one supreme being, supremacy of the guru, a company of pious people (satsang), and a simple social life.

 

Sree Narayana Guru Dharma Paripalana (SNDP) Movement

• The SNDP movement was an example of a regional movement born out of conflict between the depressed classes and upper castes.
• It was started by Sree Narayana Guru Swamy (1856- 1928) among the Ezhavas of Kerala, who were a backward caste of toddy-tappers and were considered to be untouchables, denied education and entry into temples.

 

Justice Movement

• This movement in Madras Presidency was started by C.N. Mudaliar, T.M. Nair and P. Tyagaraja to secure jobs and representation for the non-brahmins in the legislature.
• In 1917, Madras Presidency Association was formed which demanded separate representation for the lower castes in the legislature.

 

Self-Respect Movement

• This movement was started by E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker, a Balija Naidu, in the mid-1920s.
• The movement aimed at nothing short of a rejection of the brahminical religion and culture which Naicker felt was the prime instrument of exploitation of the lower castes.

 

Temple Entry Movement

• Significant work in this direction had already been done by reformers and intellectuals like Sree Narayana Guru and N. Kumaran Asan.
• In 1924, the Vaikom Satyagraha led by K.P. Kesava, was launched in Kerala demanding the throwing open of Hindu temples and roads to the untouchables.
• The satyagraha was reinforced by jathas from Punjab and Madurai.
• Gandhi undertook a tour of Kerala in support of the movement.

Indian Social Conference

• Founded by M.G. Ranade and Raghunath Rao, the Indian Social Conference met annually from its first session in Madras in 1887 at the same time and venue as the Indian National Congress.
• It focussed attention on the social issues of importance; it could be called the social reform cell of the Indian National Congress, in fact.

 

Wahabi/Walliullah Movement

• The teachings of Abdul Wahab of Arabia and the preachings of Shah Walliullah inspired this essentially revivalist response to Western influences and the degeneration which had set in among Indian Muslims and called for a return to the true spirit of Islam.

 

Titu Mir‘s Movement

• Mir Nithar Ali, popularly known as Titu Mir, was a disciple of Sayyid Ahmed Barelvi, the founder of the Wahabi Movement.
• Titu Mir adopted Wahabism and advocated the Sharia.
• He organised the Muslim peasants of Bengal against the landlords, who were mostly Hindu, and the British indigo planters.

 

 Faraizi Movement

• The movement, also called the Fara’idi Movement because of its emphasis on the Islamic pillars of faith, was founded by Haji Shariatullah in 1818.
• Its scene of action was East Bengal, and it aimed at the eradication of social innovations or un-Islamic practices current among the Muslims of the region and draw their attention to their duties as Muslims.

 

Ahmadiyya Movement

• The Ahmadiyya forms a sect of Islam which originated from India.
• It was founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad in 1889.
• It was based on liberal principles. It described itself as the standard-bearer of Mohammedan Renaissance, and based itself, like the Brahmo Samaj, on the principles of universal religion of all humanity, opposing jihad (sacred war against non-Muslims).

 

Aligarh Movement

• A section of Muslims led by Syed Ahmed Khan was ready to allow the official patronage to stimulate a process of growth among Indian Muslims through better education and employment opportunities.
• The Aligarh Movement emerged as a liberal, modern trend among the Muslim intelligentsia based in Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College, Aligarh.
• It aimed at spreading (i) modern education among Indian Muslims without weakening their allegiance to Islam; (ii) social reforms among Muslims relating to purdah, polygamy, widow remarriage, women’s education, slavery, divorce, etc.

 

The Deoband School (Darul Uloom)

• The Deoband Movement was organised by the orthodox section among the Muslim ulema as a revivalist movement with the twin objectives of propagating pure teachings of the Quran and Hadis among Muslims and keeping alive the spirit of jihad against the foreign rulers.

 

Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha (Religious Reform Association)

• Was founded in 1851 by a group of English educated Parsis for the “regeneration of the social conditions of the Parsis and the restoration of the Zoroastrian religion to its pristine purity”.
• The movement had Naoroji Furdonji, Dadabhai Naoroji, K.R. Cama and S.S. Bengalee as its leaders.

 

Singh Sabha Movement

• Was founded at Amritsar in 1873 with a two-fold objective—(i) to make available modern western education to the Sikhs, and (ii) to counter the proselytising activities of Christian missionaries as well as the Brahmo Samajists, Arya Samajists and Muslim maulvis.
• The Akali movement (also known as Gurudwara Reform Movement) was an offshoot of the Singh Sabha Movement. It aimed at liberating the Sikh gurudwaras from the control of corrupt Udasi mahants (the post having become hereditary).

 

The Theosophical Movement

• A group of westerners led by Madame H.P. Blavatsky and Colonel M.S. Olcott, who were inspired by Indian thought and culture, founded the Theosophical Society in New York City, United States in 1875.
• In 1882, they shifted their headquarters to Adyar, on the outskirts of Madras in India.
• The society believed that a special relationship could be established between a person’s soul and God by contemplation, prayer, revelation, etc.