What Are Environmental Conventions & Protocols?

Environmental conventions & protocols are legally binding international agreements established to tackle environmental issues at a global scale.

Convention formal agreement among countries setting general principles.

Protocol treaty that modifies or adds provisions to an existing convention.

These agreements are vital for sustainable development & are frequently discussed in UPSC CSE.

UPSC CSE Prelims 2025 is expected to have multiple questions related to international environmental conventions, treaties & protocols under Environment & Ecology section.

List of Major Environmental Conventions & Protocols

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 1992

To stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in atmosphere at a level that prevents dangerous human caused climate change.

Provides a framework for global climate negotiations.

Establishes a distinction between Annex I countries (Developed nations with binding commitments) & Non-Annex I countries (Developing nations, voluntary commitments).

Led to creation of Kyoto Protocol (1997) & Paris Agreement (2015).

India is a party to UNFCCC & regularly submits National Communications (NATCOM) detailing its climate actions.

India follows Common but Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR) principle recognizing that developed nations have contributed more to climate change.

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Kyoto Protocol 1997 (Came into force in 2005)

To legally bind developed nations to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions.

Introduced carbon trading mechanisms
Clean Development Mechanism Allows developed nations to invest in emission-reducing projects in developing nations.
Joint Implementation Enables collaboration between developed nations.
Emissions Trading System Allows countries to trade their emissions allowances.

First commitment period 2008 to 2012.

Second commitment period 2013 to 2020 (Doha Amendment).

As a developing country India was not obligated to reduce emissions but participated in CDM projects.

India hosted largest number of CDM projects globally.

Paris Agreement 2015 (Came into force in 2016)

To limit global warming to well below 2°C preferably 1.5°C above pre industrial levels.

Legally binding for all countries.

Introduces Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) allowing each country to set its emission reduction targets.

Aims to achieve carbon neutrality by 2050.

Developed nations pledged $100 billion annually for climate finance.

Indian Role

Updated NDCs (2022) Reduce emissions intensity of GDP by 45% by 2030, Achieve 50% cumulative electric power from non-fossil sources by 2030, Become net-zero by 2070.

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) 1992

To conserve biodiversity, promote sustainable use & ensure fair sharing of genetic resources.

Led to two protocols

Cartagena Protocol (2000) Regulates genetically modified organisms.
Nagoya Protocol (2010) Ensures fair access & benefit sharing of genetic resources.

India Enacted Biological Diversity Act, 2002, Hosts National Biodiversity Authority (NBA).

Ramsar Convention on Wetlands 1971

Conservation & sustainable use of wetlands.

Recognizes Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar Sites).

Montreux Record List of endangered wetlands.

India has 75 Ramsar sites (as of 2024). Notable sites are Chilika Lake, Loktak Lake, Keoladeo National Park, Sundarbans Wetland.

Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) 2001

To eliminate or restrict production & use of hazardous chemicals.

Bans 12 dangerous chemicals (Dirty Dozen) such as DDT, dioxins & PCBs.

India phased out several POPs under Hazardous Waste Rules, 2016.

Basel Convention on Hazardous Wastes 1989

To control transboundary movement of hazardous wastes.

Prevents dumping of hazardous waste in developing nations.

India banned import of hazardous waste such as e-waste, plastic waste & chemical waste.

Minamata Convention on Mercury 2013

To protect human health & environment from mercury pollution.

Bans mercury in thermometers, batteries & lamps.

India ratified Minamata Convention in 2018 & phased out mercury based products.

Stockholm Conference (1972)

United Nations Conference on Human Environment took place in Stockholm, Sweden, in June 1972.

It was first big global meeting to discuss environmental protection.

A document called Stockholm Declaration was made which had 26 important rules to protect environment.

A new organization called United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) was created to take care of global environmental issues.

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species 1973

Stops illegal trade of animals & plants that are at risk of disappearing.

It does not directly save animals but it reduces demand for hunting them by banning their trade in many countries.

India joined CITES in 1976.

Wildlife Protection Act (1972) follows CITES rules to protect species like Bengal tiger & Indian elephant.

Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) 1979 (Bonn Convention)

Countries work together to protect migratory species by stopping hunting, protecting habitats & reducing pollution.

Appendix I Animals that are in danger & need urgent protection.
Appendix II Animals that need help but are not critically endangered yet.

India hosted CMS COP-13 in Gujarat (February 2020).

The theme was Migratory species connect planet.

India added three species for protection under CMS Asian Elephant, Bengal Florican, Great Indian Bustard

World Conservation Strategy (1980)

International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) created this strategy to protect wildlife & natural resources.

World Charter for Nature (1982)

Adopted by United Nations on October 28, 1982.

Five Key Principles
Respect nature & avoid harming natural processes.
Protect all species by maintaining their genetic diversity.
Give special protection to endangered species & unique ecosystems.
Manage natural resources wisely to avoid harming environment.
Prevent environmental destruction during wars & conflicts.

Nairobi Declaration (1982)

Adopted in Nairobi, Kenya to celebrate 10 years of Stockholm Conference (1972).

Called for a long term environmental strategy for sustainable development till year 2000 & beyond.

Vienna Convention (1985)

Signed in 1985 as a Multilateral Environmental Agreement (MEA).

Provided a framework for international cooperation to protect ozone layer.

Led to adoption of Montreal Protocol (1987).

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Montreal Protocol (1987)

Signed in 1987 & came into force in 1989.

Aims to reduce production & use of ozone-depleting substances (ODSs) like CFCs & HCFCs.

First global environmental agreement to successfully reduce harmful gases.

Recognized that different countries have different responsibilities based on their financial & technological capabilities.

India accepted Montreal Protocol in 1992.

Implemented Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation & Control) Rules, 2000 under Environment Protection Act (1986).

Kigali Amendment to Montreal Protocol (2016)

An amendment to Montreal Protocol adopted on October 15, 2016 in Kigali, Rwanda.

197 countries agreed to phase down Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) which are potent greenhouse gases used in refrigeration, air conditioning & aerosol sprays.

Unlike Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) & Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) HFCs do not deplete ozone layer but have a high Global Warming Potential (GWP).

Legally Binding Came into force on January 1, 2019.
Targets to Reduce HFC Consumption Aim is to achieve over 80% reduction by 2047.
Developed nations will provide financial & technical assistance to developing countries.

Country Group	Reduction Target
Developed Countries	Start reducing HFCs from 2019 (Cut by 10% by 2019 & 85% by 2036)
Most Developing Countries (China, Africa, etc.)	Freeze consumption in 2024 (Cut by 10% by 2029 & 80% by 2045)
Some Developing Countries (Including India)	Freeze consumption in 2028

World Commission on Environment & Development (Brundtland Commission, 1987)

Established by UN in 1983 report published in 1987.

Published Our Common Future which defined Sustainable Development for first time.

World Summit on Sustainable Development (2002) Rio+10

Location Johannesburg, South Africa

Reviewed progress of Agenda 21 (adopted at 1992 Earth Summit).

Rotterdam Convention (1998)

Shared responsibility in trade of hazardous chemicals & pesticides.

Requires prior informed consent before export of hazardous chemicals.

Stockholm Convention (2004)

Eliminate/restrict production & use of harmful POPs that accumulate in environment.

UN Conference on Sustainable Development (2012) Rio+20

The Future We Want non-binding commitment to sustainable development.

Partnership for Action on Green Economy (PAGE) Supports nations in adopting green economic policies.

UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development

Adopted 2015

Goal Eradicate poverty, ensure human rights & achieve sustainability.

17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) with 169 targets.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

Established 1988 (by WMO & UNEP)

Provides scientific reports on climate change risks, impacts & mitigation.

Supports UNFCCC negotiations but does not conduct original research.

Global Environment Facility (GEF)

Funds projects related to biodiversity, climate change, land degradation & pollution.

Partners 183 countries, UN agencies & private sector.

Table of Environmental Conventions & Protocols

Convention/Protocol	Year	Objective	Key Provisions	Protocols/ Amendments	India’s Role	Latest Developments
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)	1992	Framework for international cooperation on climate change	Acknowledges climate change as a global challenge  Differentiates responsibilities of developed & developing nations (CBDR principle)  Lays foundation for climate agreements (Kyoto, Paris)	Kyoto Protocol (1997)  Paris Agreement (2015)	Party to UNFCCC since 1992  Submits National Communications (NATCOM)  Follows CBDR principle	COP28 (2023) focused on phasing out fossil fuels
Kyoto Protocol	1997	Legally binds developed nations to reduce GHG emissions	Set legally binding targets for developed nations  Introduced Carbon Trading mechanisms:  Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)  Joint Implementation (JI)  Emissions Trading System (ETS)	Doha Amendment (2012) extended Kyoto until 2020	India hosted largest CDM projects globally	No longer in effect post-2020, replaced by Paris Agreement
Paris Agreement	2015	Limit global warming to below 2°C(preferably 1.5°C)	Requires Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) Developed nations pledged $100 billion/year for climate finance Aim for net zero emissions by 2050	COP26 (2021) established Global Methane Pledge	India's updated NDCs (2022):  Cut emissions intensity by 45% 50% energy from non-fossil sources Net Zero by 2070	COP28 (2023): India raised concerns about climate finance & technology transfer
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)	1992	Conservation & sustainable use of biodiversity	Three objectives:  Conservation of biodiversity  Sustainable use of its components  Fair sharing of genetic resources	Cartagena Protocol (2000) on Biosafety  Nagoya Protocol (2010) on Genetic Resources	Enacted Biological Diversity Act, 2002 Hosts National Biodiversity Authority (NBA)	CBD COP15 (2022) adopted Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework
Ramsar Convention on Wetlands	1971	Conservation & sustainable use of wetlands	Declares Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar Sites) Montreux Record: List of threatened wetlands	None	India has 75 Ramsar Sites(as of 2024)	India added 10 new Ramsar sites in 2022
Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)	2001	Eliminate or restrict hazardous chemicals	Bans 12 highly toxic chemicals(Dirty Dozen)  Includes DDT, dioxins, PCBs	None	India banned several POPs under Hazardous Waste Rules, 2016	India banned Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) in 2023
Basel Convention on Hazardous Waste	1989	Regulates transboundary movement of hazardous waste	Prevents developed nations from dumping waste in developing countries  Covers e-waste, plastic, chemical waste	Basel Ban Amendment (1995) prohibits all hazardous waste exports from OECD to non-OECD nations	India banned import of hazardous e-waste	Basel COP15 (2022) tightened rules on plastic waste trade
Minamata Convention on Mercury	2013	Control mercury pollution	Bans mercury in thermometers, batteries, lamps Phases out mercury mining	None	India ratified in 2018, phased out mercury-based products	India banned mercury skin-lightening creamsin 2023
Vienna Convention for Protection of Ozone Layer	1985	Framework for protecting ozone layer	Recognizes CFCs & Halons as harmful substances  Led to Montreal Protocol	Montreal Protocol (1987)  Kigali Amendment (2016)	India follows Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS) Rules, 2000	India committed to phasing out HFCs by 2047
Montreal Protocol on Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS)	1987	Phases out production & consumption of CFCs, Halons, HCFCs	Legally binding phase-out targets  99% of ODS phased out globally	Kigali Amendment (2016) targeted HFCs	India reduced CFC consumption by 95%	Kigali Amendment in force since 2019
Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety	2000	Regulates genetically modified organisms (GMOs)	Precautionary principle: Requires proper risk assessment before GMO trade	None	India enforces under Environmental Protection Act, 1986	Debate over GM crops like BT Brinjal in India
Nagoya Protocol on Genetic Resources	2010	Fair sharing of benefits from genetic resources	Requires prior informed consent (PIC) for using genetic resources	None	India established Access & Benefit Sharing (ABS) mechanism	India hosted Biodiversity COP11 (2012)
UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)	1994	Prevent desertification & land degradation	Promotes sustainable land use  Aims to restore 1 billion hectares of land by 2030	None	India hosted UNCCD COP14 in 2019 Goal to restore 26 million hectares by 2030	India launched Desertification Atlas in 2022
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)	1973	Regulates international trade in endangered species	Lists species in three Appendices:  Appendix I(Banned trade)  Appendix II(Regulated trade)  Appendix III(Locally protected species)	None	India is a CITES member Project Tiger protects species like Bengal Tiger	CITES COP19 (2022) added Sharks, Rays to protection list

Conferences of Parties

COP Number	Year	Location	Significant Outcomes
COP1	1995	Berlin, Germany	Established Berlin Mandate, initiating negotiations for binding commitments from developed countries.
COP3	1997	Kyoto, Japan	Adoption of Kyoto Protocol, legally binding developed countries to emission reduction targets.
COP8	2002	New Delhi, India	Delhi Declaration emphasized development needs of poorest countries & advocated for technology transfer to mitigate climate change.
COP13	2007	Bali, Indonesia	Parties agreed on Bali Road Map & Bali Action Plan, focusing on shared vision, mitigation, adaptation, technology & financing.
COP16	2010	Cancún, Mexico	Resulted in Cancún Agreements, establishing Green Climate Fund, Technology Mechanism & Cancún Adaptation Framework.
COP17	2011	Durban, South Africa	Governments committed to negotiating a new universal climate change agreement by 2015, leading to Paris Agreement.
COP21	2015	Paris, France	Adoption of Paris Agreement, aiming to keep global temperature rise well below 2°C & pursuing efforts to limit it to 1.5°C. Developed countries pledged to mobilize USD 100 billion annually for climate finance.
COP22	2016	Marrakech, Morocco	Focused on developing rulebook for Paris Agreement & launched Marrakech Partnership for Climate Action.
COP23	2017	Bonn, Germany	Continued negotiations on Paris Agreement's implementation guidelines. Notably, first COP presided over by a small-island developing state, Fiji.
COP24	2018	Katowice, Poland	Finalized "Katowice Rulebook" to operationalize Paris Agreement, detailing guidelines on mitigation, transparency & finance.
COP25	2019	Madrid, Spain	Discussions extended on carbon markets & finance mechanisms; however, no concrete agreements were reached.
COP26	2021	Glasgow, UK	The Glasgow Climate Pact was adopted, urging countries to strengthen NDCs & setting rules for carbon market mechanisms. Developed countries were urged to fulfill USD 100 billion annual climate finance goal.
COP27	2022	Sharm El Sheikh, Egypt	Established a "loss & damage" fund to support vulnerable nations facing climate-induced disasters.
COP28	2023	Dubai, UAE	Achieved UAE Consensus, including commitments to transition away from fossil fuels by 2050, tripling renewable energy capacity & doubling energy efficiency by 2030.
COP 29	2024	Baku, Azerbaijan	A breakthrough agreement was reached to triple finance to developing countries setting a goal of at least $300 billion annually by 2035.

Other Key Environmental & Legal Conventions

Convention	Year	Objective	Key Provisions	Relevance
Benzene Convention (C136)	1971	Protect workers from benzene exposure.	Limits benzene exposure in workplaces.  Calls for alternative use of safer substances.  Regular monitoring of air quality.	Ensures occupational safety, particularly in industries dealing with benzene.
UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)	1982	Establish a legal framework for marine and ocean governance.	Defines maritime zones (Territorial Sea, EEZ, Continental Shelf).  Regulates deep-sea mining, navigation, and fisheries.  Addresses marine pollution and conservation.	Governs global maritime activities and protects marine ecosystems.
Barcelona Convention	1976	Protect the Mediterranean Sea from pollution.	Aims to reduce land-based pollution sources.  Establishes protected marine and coastal areas.  Encourages sustainable tourism and fisheries.	Helps Mediterranean nations collaborate on marine environmental protection.
Nagoya Protocol	2010	Ensure fair and equitable sharing of benefits from genetic resources.	Implements access and benefit-sharing mechanisms.  Supports traditional knowledge of indigenous communities.  Promotes biodiversity conservation.	Strengthens biodiversity protection and benefits indigenous people.
Helsinki Declaration	1964	Set ethical principles for human research involving human subjects.	Informed consent is mandatory.  Ethical review boards must approve research.  Protection of vulnerable populations.	A key ethical guideline for medical and scientific research worldwide.
Geneva Protocol	1925	Prohibits chemical and biological weapons in warfare.	Bans use but not production or stockpiling of such weapons.  Later reinforced by the Chemical Weapons Convention (1993).	Landmark treaty in chemical and biological warfare control.
Bamako Convention	1991	Ban the import of hazardous waste into Africa.	Prohibits transboundary movement of hazardous waste.  Strengthens waste management regulations in Africa.  Prevents toxic dumping by developed nations.	Enhances environmental justice and safety in African nations.

Conclusion

The international community has taken strides toward environmental & legal governance through these conventions. Together these conventions shape a sustainable future by enforcing global cooperation, legal accountability & ecological responsibility.

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